COURSE TITLE: CSC 206 - INTRODUCTION TO INTERNET 2025

COURSE OUTLINE
This course, Introduction to the Internet, is going to cover the topics outlined below:
Introduction to the Internet, World Wide Web, Difference between Internet and WWW,
Basics of Networking, Internet Addressing, Domain Name, Connecting to the Internet, E-
mail and Instant Messaging, Internet Applications, Web Implementation, Client Side and
Server Side Activities, Overview of TCP/IP, Security and cures, Firewall, Web Browser,
Blogging Web Server, URL, HTTP, and Internet Service Provider (ISP).

MODULE 1: INTRODUCTION AND FUNDAMENTALS

WHAT IS THE INTERNET?

The Internet is a global computer network providing a variety of information and
communication facilities, consisting of interconnected networks using standardized
communication protocols.
The Internet is a global network connecting millions of computers. More than 100 countries
are linked into exchanges of data, news and opinions. According to, Internet World Statistics,
as at early 2025, there were 5.56 billion internet users worldwide, representing 67.9% of the
global population. Social media usage is also widespread, with 5.24 billion users, or 63.9% of
the global population. Mobile devices are the primary means of accessing the internet in
many regions, particularly in Africa, where mobile connections are often more affordable and
accessible than fixed-line connections.
Global Internet Users: 5.56 billion, or 67.9% of the world's population.
Social Media Users: 5.24 billion, or 63.9% of the world's population.
Mobile Dominance: Mobile devices are the dominant way people access the internet,
especially in regions like Africa.
Regional Variations: Internet penetration varies across the globe, with North America and
Europe having the highest percentages of their populations using the internet.

BRIEF HISTORY OF THE INTERNET

Who invented the Internet?
There is no single person that created the Internet we know and use today. Outline below, is
the list of different people who have helped contribute and develop the Internet.

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COURSE TITLE: CSC 206 - INTRODUCTION TO INTERNET 2025
The Idea:
The initial idea is credited as being Leonard Kleinrock's after he published his first paper
entitled "Information Flow in Large Communication Nets" on May 31, 1961. J.C.R.
Licklider in 1962, became the first Director of IPTO (Information Processing Techniques
Office) and gave his vision of a galactic network. In addition to ideas from Licklider and
Kleinrock, Robert Taylor helped create the idea of the network that later
became ARPANET.
Initial Creation:
The Internet as we know it today first started being developed in the late 1960's. In the
summer of 1968, the Network Working Group (NWG) held its first meeting chaired
by Elmer Shapiro with the Stanford Research Institute (SRI) with attendees: Steve
Carr, Steve Crocker, Jeff Rulifson, and Ron Stoughton. In the meeting, the group
discussed solving issues related to getting hosts to communicate with each other. In
December 1968, Elmer Shapiro with SRI released a report "A Study of Computer Network
Design Parameters." Based on this work and earlier work done by Paul Baraon, Thomas
Marill and others; Lawrence Roberts and Barry Wessler helped to create the final version
of the Interface Message Processor (IMP) specifications. Bolt Beranek and Newman, Inc.
(BBN) was later awarded the contract to design and build the IMP subnetwork.
Evolution:
The Internet evolve from the ARPANET, which was developed in 1969 by the Advanced
Research Projects Agency (ARPA) of the U.S. Department of Defense. It was the first
operational packet-switching network. ARPANET began operations in four locations namely:
UCLA, University of Santa Barbara, the University of Utah, and SRI (Stanford Research
Institute). There are tens of millions of hosts on the Net today, with a hundreds of millions of
users and participating countries of nearly 200. With this growing trend there is an
exponential growth in the number of connections to the Internet. The new technology of
packet switching was used by ARPANET, which offered advantages over circuit switching.
When circuit switching is used for data transmission, it is essential that the data rate of the
transmitting device and the receiving device be the same. With packet switching this is not
necessary. A packet can be sent at the data rate of the transmitting device into the network,
travel through the network at a variety of different data rates, usually higher than the
transmitter’s rate, and then be metered out at the data rate that the receiver was expecting.
As packet switching became a very successful technology ARPA applied it to tactical radio
communication (packet radio) and to satellite communication network (SATNET). As the
three networks operated in very different communication environments, then parameters like
maximum packet size differed in each case. Hence the need for integrating these networks,
Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn of ARPA started to develop methods and protocols for internetting;
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COURSE TITLE: CSC 206 - INTRODUCTION TO INTERNET 2025
that is, communicating across arbitrary, multiple, packet-switched networks. They published
a very influential paper in May, 1974[CERF74] outlining their approach to a Transmission
Control Protocol. The proposal was refined and details filled in by the ARPANET
community, with major contributions from participants from European Networks, such as
Cyclades (France), and EIN, eventually leading to the TCP and IP protocols, which in turn,
formed the basis for what eventually became the TCP/IP protocol suite. This provided the
foundation for the Internet.
The Internet Backbone.
Is the physical network that carries Internet Traffic between different computer systems.
There are several large corporations that provide the routers and cables that make up the
Internet backbone. These companies are upstream Internet Service Providers (ISPs) and they
includes:
UUNET – founded in 1987, is one of the largest Internet service providers.
AT&T – Is an American multinational telecommunications corporation, founded 1897.
Qwest/Century Link - Qwest provided voice, Internet backbone data services, and
digital television, founded 1996.
Level 3 – Level 3 Communications is an American multinational telecommunications and
Internet service provider company, founded 1985.
Sprint – Sprint Corporation, is a United States telecommunications holding company that
provides wireless services and is also a major global Internet carrier, founded 1899.
Verizon - Verizon Communications, is an American broadband and telecoms company.
Founded 1983
IBM - American multinational technology and consulting corporation, founded 1911.
Then there are other smaller ISPs that negotiate with upstream ISPs for Internet access.

Importance of the Internet

Internet is today one of the most important part of our daily life. Today the Internet has
invaded virtually all facets of human endeavor and so it is very important. You can say that
with the progress in the Internet we are progressing in every sphere of life as it not only
makes our tasks easier but also saves a lot of time. Today internet is used for different
purposes depending upon the requirement. Listed below are ten best identified uses of the
Internet:
1. Communication: As the world becomes a global village. Distance apart between people
does not create a communication barrier. At the moment the easiest thing that can be
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done using the Internet is that we can communicate with the people living far away from
us with extreme ease. Earlier the communication used to be a daunting task but all that
chanced once Internet came into the life of the common people. Now people can not only
chat but can also do the video conferencing. It has become extremely easy to contact the
loved ones who are in some other part of the world. Communication is the most
important gift that the Internet has given to the common man. Email, social networking
sites are some of the prime example of it. This is one such gift of the Internet which is
cherished by everyone and has made our life easier to much extent.
2. Research: In order to do research you need to go through hundreds of books as well as
the references and that was one of the most difficult jobs to do earlier. Since the Internet
came into life, everything is available just a click away. You just have to search for the
concerned topic and you will get hundreds of references that may be beneficial for your
research. And since Internet is here to make your research public, you can then benefit a
large amount of people from the research work that you have done. Research is one such
thing which has got lots of benefit from this evolution of Internet. Research process has
now got wings and has gained the most due to the Internet.

3. Education: Education is one of the best things that the Internet can provide. There are a
number of books, reference books, online help centers, expert’s views and other study
oriented material on the Internet that can make the learning process very easier as well as
a fun learning experience. There are lots and lots of websites which are related to
different topic. You can visit them and can gain endless amount of knowledge that you
wish to have. With the use of internet for education, you are non-longer dependent on
some other person to come and teach you. There are various number of tutorials available
over the internet using which you can learn so many thing very easily. There are quite a
number of Universities today that offer online degree programs at all levels (Bachelors,
Masters and PhDs). There can’t be any excellent use of the internet other than education
as it is the key to achieve everything in life.

4. Financial Transaction: Financial transaction is the term which is used when there is
exchange of money. With the use of Internet in the financial transaction, your work has
become a lot easier. Now you don’t need to stand in the queue at the branch of your
particular bank rather you can just log in on to the bank website with the credential that
has been provided to you by the bank and then can do any transaction related to finance
at your will. With the ability to do the financial transaction easily over the Internet you
can purchase or sell items so easily. Financial transaction can be considered as one of the
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best uses of resource in the right direction. The Current administration’s cashless society
policy in Nigeria is not an exception of the Internet financial transaction benefits.

5. Real Time Updates: With Internet we easily come to know instantly about a lot of news,
activities and other happenings around the globe. There are various websites on the
Internet which provides you with the real time updates in every field be it in business,
sports, finance, politics, entertainment and others. Many a time the decisions are taken on
the real time updates that are happening in various parts of the world and this is where
Internet is very essential and helpful.

6. Leisure: Right from watching your favorite videos to listening songs, watching movies,
playing games, chatting with the loved ones has been possible due to Internet. Internet
has progressed with so much pace that today whenever you get time, you just move on to
the internet and so such activities which helps you to relax. Leisure is one of the most
important uses of Internet and that has surely one thing that attracts people towards it.
Internet is home of some of the excellent resources using which you can freshen up your
mood in minutes.

7. Online Booking: Prior to the advent of the Internet the only way to book the railway
tickets or bus tickets or plane tickets was to visit their centers at the designated locations.
That time has completely changed and today everything is available at the mouse click.
This has been possible only because of the Internet. Not only the online booking process
is easier as well as less tedious but is also reliable. There is no need to visit the booking
counters to book tickets or to contact the agents that might ask for more money in order
to process your request. You can do all these things sitting at home, using Internet. This
is the reason it has been placed at the number seventh place in this list. The booking
process has simplified because of the Internet and this is the best use of the resources that
you have.

8. Job Search: Job search is one such thing which required updates from every corner as
well the patience from the person searching for it. Using Internet, this has become an
easier task. There are endless amount of websites on the Internet that provided with the
news about the vacancy in various companies. You just need to get yourself registered at
these website and they will do the rest. They will not only send you the email mentioning
job vacancy according to your choice but will also help you to select the best out of them.
Job search is easier now, all thanks to Internet else it was a nightmare earlier.
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9. Blogging: There are many people who are very much interested in writing blogs and for
them Internet is the best place. They can not only write blogs as per their wish but can
also publicize their work so that their work reaches to most of the people and they get
appreciated. There is huge number of websites over the Internet which allows you to
write blogs. You just need to get yourself registered as per their procedure and then start
writing. And if your blogs are really good and so many people visit your blog then there
is chance that you might get elected to write blogs for big organizations. Blogging has
reached to all new level with the help of internet and is one such use which is beneficial
to everyone.

10. Shopping: Shopping has now become one of the most pleasing things to do using the
Internet. Whenever you find time, just visit the concerned websites and order the items
that you need from there. Those items will be delivered to you in best possible time.
There is huge number of options available for a common people to buy or to sell any
particular item using the Internet. Using Internet now it is possible to buy products from
all over the world.

Negative Effects of the Internet on the Society

Despite its numerous advantageous uses, yet the Internet when used wrongly has devastating
effects on the society. The outline below, are some of the identified negative effects of the
Internet on the society:
1. Inactivity: The Internet has had a negative impact on society due to the inactivity
associated with technology. The convenience of the Internet has allowed people to
become much less active. People are able to shop online, which affords them the
opportunity to not leave the comfort of their home. This, coupled with the alarming
amount of time spent checking emails and text messages, and mindlessly surfing the
world wide web, and you find a society that is much less active than it should be,
potentially causing many health concerns.

2. Sleep: Another negative impact that the Internet has had on society is the lack of
productive sleep of a large population. Sleep is crucial to our functioning, and the
Internet is robbing us of much needed sleep. Information is available at any point of
any day, and thus people are staying up too late, becoming slaves to the Internet.

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3. Images: There are far too many images of violence and sex available on the Internet,
an extremely negative impact on society. The images on the Internet are disturbing,
and are causing children to lose their innocence and purity at far too young an age.
These images can also skew the perception of women and minorities, harming the
healthy growth and development of today's youth. Pornography is readily available,
with no proof of age required.

4. Sexual Predators: Sexual predators are a filthy byproduct of the Internet. These
depraved individuals are lurking in cyberspace, plucking unsuspecting children and
robbing them of their childhood. This is by far one of the most heinous negative
impacts of the Internet on society.

5. Theft: People are being robbed of their identities and their possessions through
Internet usage. Theft is easily done by experienced computer hackers, and can render
their victims in a terrible state of fear and financial trouble. Every keystroke is
potentially being studied, rarely for the betterment of society. This is another way that
the Internet is having a negative impact on society.

6. Privacy: The negative effect of the Internet on privacy is the complete and utter
erosion of it as it is currently known. The Internet strips people of their basic privac,
showing the world more than should be shared. The digital footprint that people are
leaving is indelible. People are exposing themselves to the entire world, often without
their knowledge or full consent.

7. Addiction: Addiction is another negative effect of the Internet on society. Addictive

personalities can now find a forum from their own home. Addicted gamblers, for
instance, are able to gamble easily and without detection by their loved ones. This
addiction can result in many detrimental consequences for the individual.

8. Instant gratification: The modern technology available has allowed people to have
instant access to almost anything they want, and they get it with very little effort. This
can impact future expectations, and is harmful to work ethic. When things come easily,
it eliminates the necessity to work for things. This can cause many concerns.

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9. Communication: Technology is eroding the language. Short forms are rampant,
leaving spelling and grammar flailing about without concern for their well-being.
People are in a constant state of communication, which may seem wonderful, but it is
taxing on the mind. We no longer have any time to ourselves, where we can be alone in
a tranquil state of serenity.

[Link]: Many people trust the Internet for information. Students use the
Internet for research to aid with their homework, adults use the Internet for all sorts of
things, such as medical or financial advice. The Internet, for all of its wondrous
abilities, is still unreliable due to the proliferation of bogus sites and misinformation.

THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE INTERNET AND WWW.

The Internet and the World Wide Web have a whole-to-part relationship. The Internet is the
large container, and the Web is a part within the container. It is common in daily conversation
to abbreviate them as the "Net" and the "Web", and then swap the words interchangeably. But
to be technically precise, the Net is the restaurant, and the Web is the most popular dish on
the menu.
1. The Internet is a Big Collection of Computers and Cables: The Internet is named
for "interconnection of computer networks". It is a massive hardware combination of
millions of personal, business, and governmental computers, all connected like roads
and highways. The Internet started in the 1960's under the original name "ARPAnet".
ARPAnet was originally an experiment in how the US military could maintain
communications in case of a possible nuclear strike. With time, ARPAnet became a
civilian experiment, connecting university mainframe computers for academic
purposes. As personal computers became more mainstream in the 1980's and 1990's,
the Internet grew exponentially as more users plugged their computers into the massive
network. Today, the Internet has grown into a public spiderweb of millions of personal,
government, and commercial computers, all connected by cables and by wireless
signals. No single person owns the Internet. No single government has authority over
its operations. Some technical rules and hardware/software standards enforce how
people plug into the Internet, but for the most part, the Internet is a free and open
broadcast medium of hardware networking.

2. The Web Is a Big Collection of HTML Pages on the Internet: The World Wide
Web, or "Web" for short, is a massive collection of digital pages: that large software
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subset of the Internet dedicated to broadcasting content in the form of HTML pages.
The Web is viewed by using free software called web browsers. Born in 1989, the Web
is based on hypertext transfer protocol, the language which allows you and me to
"jump" (hyperlink) to any other public web page. There are over 65 billion public web
pages on the Web today.

The Internet, linking your computer to other computers around the world, is a way of
transporting content. The Web is software that lets you use that content or contribute your
own. The Web, running on the mostly invisible Internet, is what you see and click on in your
computer’s browser.

The Internet’s roots are in the U.S. during the late 1960s. The Web was invented 20 years
later by an Englishman working in Switzerland though it had many predecessors.

To keep things interesting, many people use the term Internet to refer to both.

BASICS OF NETWORKING
What is a Computer Network?
The simplest Computer Network can be achieved by physically connecting two
computers/devices together and establish communication between them. Computer
Networking is the engineering discipline concerned with the communication between
computer system/devices.
So we can further refer to a Computer Network as: Any collection of independent computers
that communicate with one another over a shared network medium.

In any Computer Network there must be at least the following:

 At least two computers.
 Network Interface Card (NIC)
 A connection medium, usually a guided or unguided media.
 Network Operating System software.

Basic Types of Networks.

1. LANs (Local Area Networks): LANs are networks usually confined to a geographic
area, such as a single building or a college campus. LANs can be small, linking as few
as three computers, but often link hundreds of computers used by thousands of people.
In a more precise terms a LAN is a geographically localized network consisting of both
hardware and software that links personal computers, workstations, printers, servers,
and other peripherals.

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2. MANs (Wide Area Networks): This refers to a network of computers within a city.
By way of contrast, there are networks that cover a geographical territory larger than a
building or campus, but smaller than a state or country. Networks that are between a
WAN and LAN in size are sometimes referred to as metropolitan area networks
(MANs).
3. WANs (Wide Area Networks): Wide Area Network combines multiple LANs that are
geographically separate. This is accomplished by connecting the different LANs using
services such as dedicated leased phone lines, dial-up phone lines (both synchronous
and asynchronous), satellite links, and data packet carrier services. Wide area
networking can be as simple as a modem and remote access server for employees to
dial into, or it can be as complex as hundreds of branch offices globally linked using
special routing protocols and filters to minimize the expense of sending data sent over
vast distances.

Categories of Network.
Network can be categorized into two main categories:
 Peer-to-peer.
 Server – based.
1. In peer-to-peer networking there are no dedicated servers or hierarchy among the
computers. All of the computers are equal and therefore known as peers. Normally each
computer serves as Client/Server and there is no one assigned to be an administrator
responsible for the entire network. Peer-to-peer networks are good choices for needs of
small organizations where the users are allocated in the same general area, security is not
an issue and the organization and the network will have limited growth within the
foreseeable future. A peer-to-peer network is one in which you connect all of the user’s
computers together without purchasing a central machine that will act as a server. This
type of network usually involves only a small number of users ten or less. All computers
take part in the networking services, which usually involves the sharing of files.
2. The client/server model: Client-server networking is the networking model that
companies usually choose when there are ten or more workstations on the network.
Unlike a peer-to-peer network, there is a central machine that delivers network services to
the workstations. Once again, these network services could be file and print sharing. The
benefit of a client-server configuration is that you now have centralized administration.
As the administrator of this network, you will create all of the shared directories on the
server. Everyone will connect to this server and store their files on it. Tighter security is
also a benefit of client-server networking. The server usually has an account (a username

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and password) that is used to control who can get access to what files stored on the
server.

Network Topologies.
When building a network, it is important to understand some of the decisions that need to be
made as far as setup is concerned. Building a network is like building a database. You have to
understand the theory before you start the hands-on work.
Topology refers in a general sense to “layout,” so a network topology defines the “layout” of
the network. Another way topology is defined is: the geometric arrangement of nodes and
cable links in a LAN.

Types of Topologies.
There are basically three Topologies namely, Bus, Star and Ring. The Hybrid topology
however, as the name implies is a mixture of two or more of the basic topologies.

Bus
A bus topology uses a main wire, or trunk, that all network devices connect to. The
installation of this main trunk is fairly cheap to install, but expensive to maintain. Figure1
shows a diagram of a bus topology. You can see that if a new workstation needed to be added
to the trunk, it would involve cutting the cable and adding the appropriate connector.

Figure1: A bus topology

When a workstation sends data to another workstation on the trunk, the data (sometimes
called the signal) is delivered across the full length of the trunk. Each workstation looks at all
data that is running along the trunk, and if the data is destined for a particular workstation,
that workstation will copy the data to the memory on its network adapter. For example,
Figure2 can be used to demonstrate what happens when Computer A sends information to
Computer B. The information will run along the trunk, and when it passes by Computer C,
Computer C will check to see if it is also a destination for the information; if not, Computer C
ignores the data. The information will continue down the wire and make it way to Computer
B. Computer B looks at the data to determine if the data is destined for him; if so, Computer
B makes a copy of the data and stores it in the memory on the network card. Note that
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because Computer B has made a copy of the data, there is still data on the wire. The data
continues on the wire past the server and hits the terminator at the end of the trunk segment.

A terminator is a device that absorbs any signals that are running on the wire. If there were
no terminator at the end of the cable, the signal would bounce back in the other direction and
collide with any new data being placed on the wire. So, to prevent this, the terminator grabs
any signals that hit it and throws them away. In a bus topology, any break in the wire
(creating a non-terminated end, and thus, signal bounce) will result in the collapse of the
entire network

Star
One of the most popular types of network topologies is the star topology. A star topology,
shown in Figure2, involves a central component that all network devices connect to. This
central component is called a hub. Another term for a hub is a concentrator, which is a device
that connects all other devices together.

Figure2: A star topology

Thus, if Computer A sends information to Computer D, the information would first travel
from Computer A to the hub. The hub would send the information to each workstation so that
they could determine if the data is destined for it or not. When Computer D receives the data,
Computer D checks the address, identifies itself as the recipient of the data, and then copies
the data to the network adapter’s memory.

One of the major benefits of the star topology is that if a cable breaks, it doesn’t take down
the entire network. Only the workstation connected to the cable is affected. If the hub device
breaks, however, the entire network will fail. Note that the cost of implementing a star
topology may be a little more than a bus topology due to the high price of the hub device.

Ring
In a ring topology, each computer is connected to the next computer, creating a physical ring.
Although ring topologies are not common today, you still see them in IBM’s token ring
architecture. Figure3 shows a ring topology.

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Figure3: A ring topology

In environments that use the ring topology, data is usually passed from workstation to
workstation. Because data becomes distorted when it travels great distances, each workstation
is responsible for reading the data, then regenerating the data and passing the information on
to the next workstation. As with a bus topology, any break in the ring will cause the entire
network to fail.

Hybrid
A hybrid topology is a mixture of two or more of the three basic topologies. For example,
you could use a bus topology as a main trunk and connect hubs to the main bus. A number of
network devices would be connected to each hub. Figure4 shows an example of a hybrid
topology.

Figure4: A Hybrid topology

The topology in Figure4 above is a Star-Bus topology. Meaning a Star topology mixed with a
Bus topology. The Star topology is the most popular topology in use today.

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Network Cabling.
Having, evaluated the different types of network layouts. We are now going to discuss and
evaluate the different types of cabling available to standard networks. The cabling that will be
discuss below are Twisted Pair – STP and UTP, Coaxial and Fiber Optic.

Twisted Pair - Twisted pair cabling, which is inexpensive and easy to use, is probably one of
the most popular types of cabling. It gets its name from the fact that there are four pairs of
wires twisted around each other inside the cable’s jacket. In addition, twisted pair cabling
comes in two different flavors—unshielded twisted pair (UTP) and shielded twisted pair
(STP).
The two types of twisted pair cabling are fairly similar, the only difference being that STP
cabling has an extra layer of insulation. The extra layer helps prevent interference from
outside devices or cabling—interference that can distort the data traveling along the cable
length. The Unshielded twisted pair cabling comes in six different flavors, called grades or
categories. Table 1-1 lists the six categories of UTP cabling, as well as their purpose and
speed.

Table1-1 UTP Category

Category Purpose Speed
Category 1 Voice Only
Category 2 Data 4Mbps
Category 3 Data 10Mbps
Category 4 Data 16Mbps
Category 5 Data 100Mbps
Category 6 Data 10Gbps

Twisted pair cabling uses a special type of connector to connect the cable to the network
devices. This connector is similar to the one used to connect a telephone to telephone jack.
Network devices that use twisted pair cabling use the RJ-45 connector, while telephones use
the RJ-11 connector.

Coaxial: Coaxial cabling is the same type as that which is used for cable television. There is
a copper wire in the center of coaxial cable that is responsible for transmitting information.
Furthermore, the copper wire is protected by two levels of insulation and an exterior plastic
covering, as shown in Figure3-4.

Table: Types of Coaxial Cable

Type Max cable length Diameter Speed
Thinnet 185M .25inch 10mbps
Thicknet 500M .50inch 10mbps

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Fiber optic
Fiber optic cabling is one of the fastest types of network medium available today. Fiber optic
cabling is made up of a glass fiber core, surrounded by a layer of insulation that is then
covered with a plastic jacket. There are two fiber channels in fiber optic cable: one for
sending information and the other for receiving information.

Fiber optic cabling has a maximum distance of about 2 km and transmits information at
speeds of 100Mbps to 1Gbps. Because fiber carries data in pulses of light instead of
electronic signals, it is impossible for the data to be corrupted by outside electronic
interference

TIA/EIA-568-A, T-568B RJ45 WIRING STANDARD FOR WIRING STRAIGHT-

THROUGH AND CROSS-OVER RJ-45 CABLES

RJ-45 conductor data cable contains 4 pairs of wires each consists of a solid colored wire
and a strip of the same color. There are two wiring standards for RJ-45 wiring: T-
568A and T-568B. Although there are 4 pairs of wires, 10BaseT/100BaseT Ethernet uses
only 2 pairs: Orange and Green. The other two colors (blue and brown) may be used for
a second Ethernet line or for phone connections. The two wiring standards are used to
create a cross-over cable (T-568A on one end, and T-568B on the other end), or a
straight-through cable (T-568B or T-568A on both ends).

To create a straight-through cable, you'll have to

use either T-568A or T-568B on both ends of the
cable. The diagram depicted on the left and right
shows clip of the RJ-45 connector down.

To create a cross-over cable, you'll wire T-568A on

one end and T-568B on the other end of the cable.

The straight-through cables are used when

connecting Data Terminating Equipment (DTE) to
Data Communications Equipment (DCE), such as
computers and routers to modems (gateways) or hubs
(Ethernet Switches). The cross-over cables are used
when connecting DTE to DTE, or DCE to DCE
equipment; such as computer to computer, computer
to router; or gateway to hub connections. The DTE
equipment terminates the signal, while DCE
equipment do not.

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Networking Devices

Intermediary Network Devices

Rules of Communication.
Communication Fundamentals
Computer Communication
• The source host breaks a long message into individual pieces or frames that meet
both the minimum and maximum size requirements.
• Each frame will also have its own addressing information.
• At the receiving host, the pieces are reconstructed to be processed and interpreted

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Message Delivery Options

1. Unicasting (one-to-one) 2. Multicasting (one-to-many) 3. Broadcasting (one-to-all)

Mode of Communication

 Simplex

 Half-duplex

 Full-duplex

INTERNET ADDRESSING (IP)

IP is responsible for the basic connectivity between networks, though it is not concerned
whether data arrived without errors. That is handled by TCP. The current version is Internet
Protocol Version4 (IPv4). A newer version, called IPv6, is a bigger and more versatile
brother that many Internet sites are starting to implement.
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IPv4: Is a 32-bit address divided into two sections: Network name (NET_ID) and the Host
name (HOST_ID). An IP number is written as four fields or bytes, (Octets) separated by dots.
It looks like this: field1.field2.field3.field4 or 1stOctet.2ndOctet.3rdOctet.4thOctet
IP Address: An IP address is a numeric identifier assigned to each machine on an IP
network. It designates the specific location of a device on the network. An IP address is a
software address. While the hard-coded address on the Network Interface Card (NIC) is the
hardware address (MAC address). IP addressing was designed to allow a host on one
network, to communicate with a host on a different network regardless of the type of LANs
the hosts are participating in.
IP Terminology: Below are some terms that are key to the understanding of Internet
Protocol addressing.
 Bit – a bit is one digit, either a 1 or a 0.
 Byte – a byte is 8 bits
 Octet – an octet, is made up of 8 bits, is just an ordinary 8 bit binary number.
 Network address – this is the designation used in routing to send packets to remote
network. E.g. [Link], [Link], [Link]
 Broadcast address – the address used by applications and hosts to send information to
all nodes on a network is called the broadcast address. Example: [Link] all
networks and nodes; [Link], which is all subnets and hosts on network
[Link]; and [Link] which broadcasts to all subnets and hosts on network
[Link]

Classes of Networks
Based on the IP addressing scheme, there are fundamentally five (5) classes of networks.
Basically in the IP addressing scheme, three primary classes of networks (A, B, C) are used
for host addresses and the other two classes (C, D) are for special purpose.
Summary of Classes of Networks
8bits 8bits 8bits 8bits
CLASS: A Network Host Host Host
CLASS: B Network Network Host Host
CLASS: C Network Network Network Host
CLASS: D Multicast
CLASS: E Research

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IP Address number Ranges for the five classes of networks
 CLASS A: is intended for 127 enormous networks, each of which can address almost
17,000,000 hosts, the first field is a number ranging from 1–127
 CLASS B: Is designed for 16,384 big networks, each of which can have up to 65,536
hosts. The first Octet is always a number between 128–191. It is needed by mostly
Universities and big Companies.
 CLASS C: It is meant for everyone else, it has 2,097,152 small networks, each of
which may have only 254 hosts. The first field is always a number ranging from 192 –
223. For example when you look at this IP address [Link] (206.11.20 – Network
prefix address) and 81 is the host number (address).
 CLASS D: Is reserved for multicasting, a special way of transmitting information from
a server to a set of several clients at the same time. For instance, audio and video
conferencing or Internet radio and TV. The first Octet is always a number from 224 –
239.
 CLASS E: Is also a reserved class. It is for future use (Research). The first field
number ranges from 240 – 255.
 Loopback Testing: is use for diagnostic testing to confirm that the TCP/IP stack is
functional. The IP address [Link] is reserved for the loopback testing. From the
DOS prompt you issue the ping command by typing ping [Link] and enter. If there
is a response then the TCP/IP stack is functional.

Media/Medium Access Control Address (MAC)

MAC addresses are hardware-based. A MAC address (short for medium access control
address or media access control address) is a unique identifier assigned to a network interface
controller (NIC) for use as a network address in communications within a network segment.
This use is common in most IEEE 802 networking technologies, including Ethernet, Wi-Fi,
and Bluetooth. Within the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) network model, MAC
addresses are used in the medium access control protocol sub-layer of the data link layer. As
typically represented, MAC addresses are recognizable as six groups of
two hexadecimal digits, separated by hyphens, colons, or without a separator (e.g.,
00:1A:2B:3C:4D:5E).

MAC addresses are primarily assigned by device manufacturers, and are therefore often
referred to as the burned-in address, or as an Ethernet hardware address, hardware
address, or physical address. Each address can be stored in the interface hardware, such as
its read-only memory, or by a firmware mechanism. Many network interfaces, however,
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support changing their MAC addresses. The address typically includes a
manufacturer's organizationally unique identifier (OUI). MAC addresses are formed
according to the principles of two numbering spaces based on extended unique identifiers
(EUIs) managed by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE): EUI-48—
which replaces the obsolete term MAC-48 and EUI-64.
Network nodes with multiple network interfaces, such as routers and multilayer switches,
must have a unique MAC address for each network interface in the same network. However,
two network interfaces connected to two different networks can share the same MAC address

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