Digestive tract/alimentary tract (canal): Mucosa, Submucosa, Muscularis, Serosa
Anatomy and function
Mucosa Epithelium: Rich in simple columnar epithelium; contains mucus-secreting cell (protection, ease for food passage);
Also contain stratified squamous epithelium (mouth, pharynx, esophagus, anus)
Lamina propria: Loose connective tissue, capillaries for nourishment, contain lymphoid follicle (for defense)
Muscularis mucosae: Smooth muscle (produce local movement for absorption and secretion
Submucos Connective tissue, contain blood and lymphatic vessels, lymphoid follicles and nerve fibers, elastic tissue (for
a regain shape of organ after large meal)
Muscularis Contains inner circular muscle layer and outer longitudinal layers of smooth cells
externa Circular layer thickens to form sphincters that act as valves to control food passage and prevent backflow
Serosa Outermost layers of intraperitoneal organs
Regions: Oral cavity Pharynx esophagus stomach small intestine (duodenum jejunum
ileum) large intestine (cecum/ascending colon transverse colon descending colon sigmoid
colon) rectum anus
Blood supply:
Arise from Celia trunk
Splenic artery: Spleen and pancreas, stomach
Left gastric artery: Stomach
Common hepatic artery: Stomach, liver and gallbladder, small intestine
Arise from Abdominal aorta
Superior mesenteric artery: Small intestine, cecum, ascending colon and transverse colon
Inferior mesenteric artery: Descending colon, sigmoid colon and rectum
Functions of GI system: Ingestion, propulsion (swallowing, peristalsis), secretion (lubrication, digestion,
mucus, water, bile, enzyme), digestion (chemical and physical/mechanical), absorption (movement from
GI tract to circulation or lymphatic system (fat), elimination (defecation)
Oral Cavity structure
Palate Separate oral cavity from nasal cavity
Hard palate Aid the tongue in holding and manipulating food
Soft palate Composed of skeletal muscle and glandular tissue
Uvula Help to retain the food in mouth until it is ready
to swallow
Vestibule Space between lip/cheek and alveolar processes
with teeth
Tongue Sensory receptor (taste, texture, temperature),
compress and breaks the food, mastication,
secrete mucus and enzyme, initiate swallowing
and speech
Disorder: Abnormal lingual frenulum
Teeth structure
Dentin and cementum Connective tissues with cells or cell process
embedded in a calcified matrix
Crown Portion above the gum
Root Portion inserted into the alveolus below the gum
Gingiva Covers the alveolar bone
Periodontal ligament Anchors the tooth firmly into the alveolus but
allows for slight movement under the stress of
chewing
Salivary gland
Secretion glands Parotid, sublingual, submandibular
Components Salivary amylase – starch digestion
Lingual lipase – fat digestion
Mucus – binds and lubricate food mass and aids in swallowing
Lysozyme - kills bacteria
Immunoglobulin (IgA) – inhibit bacterial growth
Electrolyte: Sodium, potassium, chloride, phosphate and bicarbonate ions
Pharynx: cavity posterior to the mouth from which the tubular esophagus leads to the stomach
(swallowing and propulsion)
Stomach:
J-shaped
Mechanical (churning and grinds; assists mix the bolus with gastric juice) + chemical breakdown
(hydrochloric acid and enzyme)
Anatomical structures: Pylorus, Rugae (internal foods and help stomach to stretch up to 50
times its empty size), Inner oblique layer allow stomach to churn, mix, move and pummel
chyme (physical breakdown)
Pancreas:
Endocrine (hormone e.g., insulin, glucagon) and exocrine (pancreatic juice)
Head, body and tail
Hepatopancreatic sphincter (control)
Hepatopancreatic ampulla
Liver:
Largest internal organ
Falciform ligament (separate left and right lobes of liver)
Left lobe, right lobe, caudate lobe, quadrate lobe
Hepatic artery proper: supply oxygen-rich arterial blood to liver
Hepatic portal vein: carry blood laden with nutrients from digestive viscera to liver
Bile duct: Collect bile produced by hepatocytes via bile canaliculi toward duodenum
Functions:
1. Produce/break glycogen from glucose
2. Convert non-carbohydrate to glucose
3. Oxidize fatty acid
4. Synthesize lipoprotein, phospholipids, cholesterol
5. Convert carbohydrate and proteins into fat
6. Deaminating amino acid
7. Form urea
8. Synthesize plasma protein
9. Convert amino acid to other amino acids
10. Store glycogen, iron, vitamins A, D and B12
11. Phagocytosis of worn-out RBCs and foreign substance
12. Remove toxin such as alcohol and certain drugs from blood
Gall bladder:
Release bile that primarily enters into the cystic duct
Cystic duct joins common hepatic duct Common bile duct
Common bile duct and pancreatic duct converge at the hepatopancreatic ampulla
Small intestine:
Duodenum jejunum ileum
Digest and absorb nutrients in chyme
Transport the remaining residues to large intestine (peristalsis and segmentation)
Large intestine:
Cecum
Colon (ascending, transverse, descending and sigmoid)
Rectum
Anus
Gastrointestinal System (Physiology)
Enteric nervous system (operate autonomously)
Myenteric nerve plexus: Regulate contraction of intestine wall
Submucosal nerve plexus: Control local secretion, absorption and muscle movement
External stimuli for increase contractility and secretory activity: Sight, smell, taste and thought
food
Internal stimuli for increase contractility and secretory activity: Change in GI tract stretch,
change in lumen pH, change in solute concentration, change in nutrients
Short reflex (automatic control), long reflex (involve central nervous system; receive
sympathetic and parasympathetic innervation)
Saliva:
Parasympathetic nervous system activation stimulate a large volume of watery saliva rich in
enzyme
Sympathetic nervous system activation stimulate a small volume of thick saliva rich in mucus
(dry mouth under stress)
Functions: moistens and dissolves food, aids the formation of food bolus, digestion (amylase and
lipase)
Swallowing (deglutition):
3 phases: Buccal phase (voluntary) Pharyngeal phase (involuntary) Esophageal phase
(involuntary)
Buccal phase: Tongue shapes the chewed, lubricated food bolus and moves it to the back of mouth
cavity
Pharyngeal phase:
1. Tongue rises against the palate and closes
2. Uvula and palate seal off the nasal cavity
3. Epiglottis covers the larynx (no entry to trachea)
4. Pharyngeal constrictor muscles contract to move food towards esophagus
Esophageal phase:
1. Upper esophageal sphincter relax to allow food pass into the esophagus
2. Esophagus peristalsis moves food from pharynx to esophagus
Stomach:
Mix and empty actions
Chemical digestion
Cell types Functions
Surface mucous cell Secrete mucus
Mucous neck cell Secrete mucus
Parietal cell Secrete hydrochloric acid and intrinsic factor (for vit.B12 absorption)
Chief cell Secrete pepsinogen and gastric lipase
G cell Secrete gastrin (for hydrochloric acid production)
Pancreatic juice
Pancreatic amylase Split starch and glycogen
Pancreatic lipase Split triglycerides into fatty acid and glycerol
Trypsin, chymotrypsin, Split protein
carboxypeptidase
Nuclease Break nucleic acid
Bicarbonate ions Neutralize the gastric acid, provide optimal pH for pancreatic enzyme to work in
small intestine
Liver and Gallbladder
Bile Produced by liver
Stored and concentrated in gallbladder
Gallbladder release bile via cystic duct into the common bile duct
Bile salts are reabsorbed in ileum and recycled to liver (enterohepatic
circulation)
Small intestine
Physical Segmentation
Chemical Intestinal juice (digestive enzyme, bicarbonate ions, mucus)
Brush-border enzyme Complete digestion
Carbohydrate: alpha-dextrinase, maltase, sucrase, lactase
Protein: aminopeptidase, dipeptidase
Goblet cell Secrete mucus
Enteroendocrine cell Secrete hormone secretin, cholecystokinin, gastric inhibitory peptide
Paneth cell Secrete lysozyme (phagocytosis)
Absorption Glucose/fructose/amino acid hepatic portal vein liver
Triglyceride Lacteal (lymphatic vessel) thoracic duct systemic circulation
Large intestine
Function Segmentation
Large intestine
Functions Water reabsorption and feces storages and defecation
Microbiota Synthesize vitamin B and K
Synthesize enzyme and neurotransmitter
Regulate metabolism
Regulate immune system and inflammation
Dysbiosis disease like hypertension, diabetes, inflammatory bowel disease