CHAPTER: 7

ALTERNATING CURRENT

DIRECT CURRENT (DC) ALTERNATING CURRENT

• The voltage or current that do not • The voltage or current which varies
change direction with time periodically with time

Most of the electrical energy sold by power companies is transmitted and distributed as alternating current.
The main advantages of AC over DC are:

• AC voltage can be easily and efficiently converted from one voltage to another by means of
transformers.
• AC can be transmitted over a large distance without much loss of energy.
AC GENERATOR
INVENTOR: NICOLA TESLA
THEORY: ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING

An ac generator consists of an armature coil abcd of large number of turns mounted on a rotor shaft. The coil
is made to rotate on in a magnetic field. The axis of rotation of the coil is perpendicular to the direction of
the magnetic field. When the coil rotates in the magnetic field, the magnetic flux linked with the coil changes
and an emf is induced in the coil. The ends of the coil are connected to the external circuit by means of slip
rings and stationary brushes.
EXPRESSION FOR THE INDUCED EMF
Let 𝐴⃗ be the area of the coil and ω is the angular speed with which the coil rotates in a uniform time
⃗⃗.
independent magnetic field 𝐵
According to Faraday’s Law:
𝒅𝝋
𝜺=−
𝒅𝒕
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝝋𝑩 = 𝑵𝑩𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽
𝑏𝑢𝑡 , 𝜽 = 𝝎𝒕
𝒅(𝑵𝑩𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎𝒕)
∴ 𝜺=−
𝒅𝒕
𝒅
𝜺 = −𝑵𝑩𝑨 (𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎𝒕)
𝒅𝒕
𝒐𝒓 𝜺 = −𝑵𝑩𝑨 × −𝝎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕
𝜺 = 𝑵𝑩𝑨𝝎 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕)

The above equation gives the instantaneous emf induced in the coil.

𝜺(𝒕) = 𝑵𝑩𝑨𝝎 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕)

AMPLITUDE OR PEAK VALUE OF EMF

Induced emf 𝜺(𝒕) = 𝑵𝑩𝑨𝝎 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕) is the maximum when 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕) = 𝟏

Therefore, the maximum value of the induced emf or the amplitude or the peak value of the induced emf is
given by: 𝜺𝒎 = 𝑵𝑩𝑨𝝎

Hence the instantaneous emf can be written as:

𝜺𝒕 = 𝜺𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕)

ENERGY CONVERSION IN AC GENERATOR

In an ac generator, the mechanical energy which is used to rotate the coil is converted into electrical energy.

VARIATION OF THE INDUCED EMF WITH TIME/ANGLE OF ROTATION OVER A

COMPLETE TIME PERIOD
SYMBOL OF AC SOURCE

FREQUENCY OF AC
Frequency of ac is equal to the number of rotations of the armature coil per second.
the direction of ac changes two times during one complete rotation of the coil
If f is the frequency of the ac and ω is the angular frequency,
𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓

AVERAGE VALUE OF AC VOLTAGE AND CURRENT OVER A COMPLETE CYCLE

The instantaneous value of voltage: 𝑉𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡

The average value of voltage over a complete cycle:

〈𝑉𝑡 〉 = 〈𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡〉 = 𝑉𝑚 〈sin 𝜔𝑡〉 = 0

The instantaneous value of current: 𝐼𝑡 = 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡

〈𝐼𝑡 〉 = 〈𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡〉 = 𝐼𝑚 〈sin 𝜔𝑡〉 = 0

The average value of voltage and current over a complete cycle in an ac circuit is zero

RMS VALUE OF AC VOLTAGE AND CURRENT OVER A COMPLETE CYCLE

rms voltage ( ROOT MEAN SQUARE VOLTAGE)

Root mean square value of voltage is defined as the squire root of the mean of the squires of the
instantaneous values of the voltage over a complete cycle.
The instantaneous value of the ac voltage:
𝑉𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡
The square of the instantaneous values:
𝑉𝑡2 = 𝑉𝑚2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡
The mean of the squares:
1
〈𝑉𝑡2 〉 = 〈𝑉𝑚2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡〉 = 𝑉𝑚2 〈𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡〉 = 𝑉𝑚2 ×
2
The square root of the mean of the squares:
𝑉𝑚
√〈𝑉𝑡2 〉 =
√2
The square root of the mean of the squares of the instantaneous values is called the rms value of the voltage.
Therefore:
𝑽𝒎
𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 =
√𝟐
rms current ( ROOT MEAN SQUARE CURRENT)
Root mean square value of current is defined as the squire root of the mean of the squires of the
instantaneous values of the current over a complete cycle.
The instantaneous value of the ac current:
𝐼𝑡 = 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡
The square of the instantaneous values:
𝐼𝑡2 = 𝐼𝑚
2
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡
The mean of the squares:
1
〈𝐼𝑡2 〉 = 〈𝐼𝑚
2
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡〉 = 𝐼𝑚
2 〈𝑠𝑖𝑛2 2
𝜔𝑡〉 = 𝐼𝑚 ×
2
The square root of the mean of the squares:
𝐼𝑚
√〈𝐼𝑡2 〉 =
√2
The square root of the mean of the squares of the instantaneous values is called the rms value of the current.
Therefore:
𝑰𝒎
𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 =
√𝟐
AVERAGE POWER CONSUMED OVER A COMPLETE CYCLE IN AN AC CIRCUIT
If an ac voltage 𝑉𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 is applied in an ac circuit, the current flowing through the circuit can be
expressed as 𝐼𝑡 = 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 ± 𝜑)
Where φ is the phase difference between the current and voltage in the circuit.

The average power consumed in the circuit is:

〈𝑃〉 = 〈𝐼𝑚 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 sin(𝜔𝑡 ± 𝜑)〉

〈𝑃〉 = 〈𝐼𝑚 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 [sin 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝜑 + cos 𝜔𝑡 sin 𝜑]〉

〈𝑃〉 = 〈𝐼𝑚 𝑉𝑚 [sin2 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝜑 + sin 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑡 sin 𝜑]〉

1
〈𝑃〉 = 〈𝐼𝑚 𝑉𝑚 [sin2 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝜑 + × 2 sin 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑡 sin 𝜑]〉
2

𝐼𝑚 𝑉𝑚
〈𝑃〉 = 〈[𝐼𝑚 𝑉𝑚 sin2 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝜑 + sin 2𝜔𝑡 sin 𝜑]〉
2

𝐼𝑚 𝑉𝑚
〈𝑃〉 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑉𝑚 〈sin2 𝜔𝑡〉 cos 𝜑 + 〈sin 2𝜔𝑡〉 sin 𝜑
2
 𝐼𝑚 𝑉𝑚
〈𝑃〉 = cos 𝜑
2

𝐼𝑚 𝑉𝑚
〈𝑃〉 = cos 𝜑
√2 √2

〈𝑃〉 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 cos 𝜑

Where cos φ is called the power factor of the circuit.

PHASOR DIAGRAM

➢ In a phasor diagram, sinusoidally varying/oscillating physical quantities are represented as rotating

vectors.
➢ A phasor is a vector which rotates about the origin with angular speed ω
➢ In an ac circuit, ac voltage and current are represented as rotating vectors.
➢ The length of the vectors represents the amplitudes of the voltage and the current in the circuit.
➢ The vertical component of the vectors gives the instantaneous values of current and voltage.

If 𝑉𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡

𝐼𝑡 = 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 ± 𝑡)

RMS VALUE IS THE DC EQUIVALENT OF AC

There is a joule heating and dissipation of electrical energy across a resistor in an ac circuit.
The average power consumed in a resistor for a complete cycle is:
1 2
〈𝑃〉 = 𝐼 𝑅 → (1)
2 𝑚
Or
𝑉𝑚2
〈𝑃〉 = → (1)
2𝑅
The expression for the power loss in a dc circuit:
𝑃 = 𝐼2𝑅 → (2)
In order to express a.c power in the same form as dc power, substitute:
2
𝐼𝑚
= 𝐼2
2
 𝐼𝑚
𝐼= = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
√2

Therefore equation 1 can be written as:

2
〈𝑃〉 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑅
Now the expression for the ac power is in the same form of dc power.
Therefore, rms current is the equivalent dc current that produces the same average power loss as ac.
OR
The rms voltage is the equivalent dc voltage that produces the same average power loss as ac.
10 V AC RMS is the amount of voltage that would produce the same amount of heat dissipation across a
resistor of given value as a 10 V dc power supply.
AC APPLIED TO A RESISTOR

Let us consider a purely resistive circuit in which an ac voltage

𝑽𝒕 = 𝑽𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕) is applied across a resistor of resistance R.

According to OHM’S LAW, 𝑽𝒕 = 𝑰𝒕 𝑹

Therefore, the instantaneous current in the circuit 𝐼𝑡 is given by

𝑽𝒕
𝑰𝒕 =
𝑹

𝑽𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕)
𝑰𝒕 =
𝑹

The current is the maximum when 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕) = 𝟏

Therefore, the maximum value of the current in the circuit, or the amplitude or the peak value of the current
is given by:

𝑽𝒎
𝑰𝒎 =
𝑹

Therefore, the instantaneous current can be written as

𝑰𝒕 = 𝑰𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕)

RESISTANCE

Resistance in a purely resistive circuit limits the current in the circuit.

 𝑽𝒎
𝑹=
𝑰𝒎

SI unit: ohm (Ω)

Resistance is independent of the frequency of the ac

PHASE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CURRENT AND VOLTAGE

𝑽𝒕 = 𝑽𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕)

𝑰𝒕 = 𝑰𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕)

The phase difference between current and voltage: Ф = 0

In a purely resistive circuit, the current and voltage are in same phase.

AVERAGE POWER CONSUMED OVER A COMPLETE CYCLE

The instantaneous value of the current and the voltage in the purely resistive circuit is:

〈𝑃〉 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 cos 𝜑

𝝋=𝟎

∴ 〈𝑃〉 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠

VARIATION OF 𝑽𝒕 AND 𝑰𝒕 AS A FUNCTION OF TIME / ANGLE OF ROTATION

PHASOR DIAGRAM
 PURELY RESISTIVE CIRCUIT
INSTANTANEOUS VOLTAGE 𝑽𝒕 = 𝑽𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕)

INSTANTANEOUS CURRENT 𝑰𝒕 = 𝑰𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕)

PEAK VALUE OF VOLTAGE 𝑽𝒎

PEAK VALUE OF CURRENT 𝑽𝒎
𝑰𝒎 =
𝑹
FACTOR WHICH LIMIT THE 𝑽𝒎
𝑹=
CURRENT FLOW IN THE CIRCUIT 𝑰𝒎
PHASE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN 𝝋=𝟎
CURRENT AND VOLTAGE
AVERAGE POWER CONSUMED 〈𝑷𝒕 〉 = 𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔
OVER A COMPLETE CYCLE
AC APPLIED TO A CAPACITOR

Let us consider an ac voltage 𝑽𝒕 = 𝑽𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕) applied across a capacitor of capacitance C. As the applied
voltage varies, the charge on the capacitor also varies accordingly. Let 𝒒(𝒕) be the charge on the capacitor at
𝒒(𝒕)
any instant of time. The voltage across the capacitor at this instant is 𝑽(𝒕) = 𝑪

𝒒𝒕
𝑽𝒕 =
𝑪

𝒒𝒕
𝑽𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕 =
𝑪

𝒒𝒕 = 𝑽𝒎 𝑪 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕

The instantaneous value of the current in the circuit is given by:

𝒅(𝒒𝒕 )
𝑰𝒕 =
𝒅𝒕

𝒅
𝑰𝒕 = (𝑽 𝑪 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕)
𝒅𝒕 𝒎
 𝒅
𝑰 𝒕 = 𝑽𝒎 𝑪 (𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕)
𝒅𝒕

𝑰𝒕 = 𝑽𝒎 𝑪𝝎 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎𝒕

AMPLITUDE OF CURRENT

The instantaneous value of the current in the circuit is:

𝑰𝒕 = 𝑽𝒎 𝑪𝝎 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎𝒕

Current in the circuit is maximum when cosωt = 1

Therefore, the maximum value of the current in the circuit is:

𝑰𝒎 = 𝑽𝒎 𝑪𝝎

Therefore, the instantaneous value of the current can be written as:

𝑰𝒕 = 𝑰𝒎 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎𝒕

𝝅
𝑰𝒕 = 𝑰𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕 + )
𝟐

CAPACITIVE REACTANCE ( XC)

Capacitive reactance is the quantity that limits the current in a purely capacitive circuit in the same way as
the resistance limits the current in a purely resistive circuit.

The ratio of the amplitude of the voltage to the amplitude of the current in the circuit is a measure of the
capacitive reactance.

From the expression for the amplitude of current:

𝑰𝒎 = 𝑽𝒎 𝑪𝝎

𝑽𝒎 𝟏
=
𝑰𝒎 𝑪𝝎

It is called the capacitive reactance XC of the circuit

𝟏
∴ 𝑿𝑪 =
𝑪𝝎

VARIATION OF THE CAPACITIVE REACTANCE WITH THE FREQUENCY OF AC

𝟏 𝟏
𝑿𝑪 = =
𝑪𝝎 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝑪
 𝟏
𝑿𝑪 ∝
𝒇

SI UNIT OF CAPACITIVE REACTANCE: Ω

VARIATION OF 𝑽𝒕 AND 𝑰𝒕 AS A FUNCTION OF TIME / ANGLE OF ROTATION

PHASE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN VOLTAGE AND CURRENT (Ф)

𝑽𝒕 = 𝑽𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕)

𝝅
𝑰𝒕 = 𝑰𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕 + )
𝟐

Phase difference
𝝅
𝝋=
𝟐

Current leads voltage by an angle π/2

Voltage lags current by an angle π/2

AVERAGE POWER CONSUMED OVER A COMPLETE CYCLE

〈𝑷〉 = 𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝋

𝜑 = 𝜋/2

∴ 〈𝑷〉 = 𝟎
PHASOR DIAGRAM

PURELY CAPACITIVE CIRCUIT

INSTANTANEOUS VOLTAGE 𝑽𝒕 = 𝑽𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕)

INSTANTANEOUS CURRENT 𝑰𝒕 = 𝑰𝒎 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝝎𝒕)

𝝅
𝑰𝒕 = 𝑰𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝝎𝒕 + )
𝟐
PEAK VALUE OF VOLTAGE 𝑽𝒎
PEAK VALUE OF CURRENT 𝑽𝒎
𝑰𝒎 =
𝑿𝑪

FACTOR WHICH LIMIT THE 𝑽𝒎 𝟏

𝑿𝑪 = =
CURRENT FLOW IN THE 𝑰𝒎 𝑪𝝎

CIRCUIT
PHASE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN 𝝋 = 𝝅/𝟐
CURRENT AND VOLTAGE Current leads voltage
AVERAGE POWER CONSUMED 〈𝑷𝒕 〉 = 𝟎
OVER A COMPLETE CYCLE
AC APPLIED TO AN INDUCTOR

Let us consider an ac voltage 𝑽𝒕 = 𝑽𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕) applied across an inductor of inductance L. As the applied
voltage varies, the current through the inductor also varies accordingly. When the current through the
inductor changes, a back emf is induced across it.

Let us consider an ac voltage 𝑽𝒕 = 𝑽𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕) applied across an inductor of inductance L. As the applied
voltage varies, the current through the inductor also varies accordingly. When the current through the
inductor changes, a back emf is induced across it.
The back emf induced across the inductor is:

𝒅𝑰
𝜺 = −𝑳
𝒅𝒕

Applying Kirchhoff’s loop rule in the circuit:

𝑽𝒕 + 𝜺 = 𝟎

𝒅𝑰𝒕
𝑽𝒕 − 𝑳 =𝟎
𝒅𝒕

𝒅𝑰𝒕
𝑽𝒕 = 𝑳
𝒅𝒕

𝒅𝑰𝒕 𝟏 𝟏
= 𝑽𝒕 = 𝑽𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕
𝒅𝒕 𝑳 𝑳

𝑽𝒎
𝒅𝑰𝒕 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕 𝒅𝒕
𝑳

The instantaneous value of the current in the circuit is given by integrating the above equation

𝑽𝒎 𝑽𝒎 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎𝒕 −𝑽𝒎 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎𝒕

𝑰𝒕 = ∫ 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕 𝒅𝒕 = =
𝑳 𝑳 𝝎 𝝎𝑳

−𝑽𝒎
𝑰𝒕 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎𝒕
𝝎𝑳

𝑰𝒕 = −𝑰𝒎 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎𝒕

𝝅
𝑰𝒕 = 𝑰𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕 − )
𝟐

AMPLITUDE OF CURRENT

The instantaneous value of the current in the circuit is:

−𝑽𝒎
𝑰𝒕 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎𝒕
𝝎𝑳

Current in the circuit is maximum when cosωt = 1

Therefore, the maximum value of the current in the circuit is:

𝑽𝒎
𝑰𝒎 =
𝝎𝑳

Therefore, the instantaneous value of the current can be written as:

𝑰𝒕 = −𝑰𝒎 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎𝒕
INDUCTIVE REACTANCE ( XL)

Inductive reactance is the quantity that limits the current in a purely inductive circuit in the same way as the
resistance limits the current in a purely resistive circuit.

The ratio of the amplitude of the voltage to the amplitude of the current in the circuit is a measure of the
inductive reactance.

From the expression for the amplitude of current:

𝑽𝒎
𝑰𝒎 =
𝝎𝑳

𝑽𝒎
= 𝝎𝑳
𝑰𝒎

It is called the capacitive reactance XC of the circuit

∴ 𝑿𝑳 = 𝝎𝑳

VARIATION OF THE CAPACITIVE REACTANCE WITH THE FREQUENCY OF AC

𝑿𝑳 = 𝝎𝑳

𝑿𝑳 ∝ 𝒇

SI UNIT OF CAPACITIVE REACTANCE: Ω

VARIATION OF 𝑽𝒕 AND 𝑰𝒕 AS A FUNCTION OF TIME / ANGLE OF ROTATION

PHASE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN VOLTAGE AND CURRENT (Ф)

𝑽𝒕 = 𝑽𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕)

𝑰𝒕 = −𝑰𝒎 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎𝒕

𝝅
𝑰𝒕 = 𝑰𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕 − )
𝟐

Phase difference
𝝅
𝝋=
𝟐

Current lags voltage by an angle π/2

AVERAGE POWER CONSUMED OVER A COMPLETE CYCLE

〈𝑃〉 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 cos 𝜑

𝝋 = 𝝅/𝟐

〈𝑷〉 = 𝟎

PHASOR DIAGRAM

PURELY INDUCTIVE CIRCUIT

INSTANTANEOUS VOLTAGE 𝑽𝒕 = 𝑽𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕)
INSTANTANEOUS CURRENT 𝑰𝒕 = −𝑰𝒎 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝝎𝒕)
𝝅
𝑰𝒕 = 𝑰𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝝎𝒕 − )
𝟐
PEAK VALUE OF VOLTAGE 𝑽𝒎
PEAK VALUE OF CURRENT 𝑽𝒎
𝑰𝒎 =
𝑿𝑳
FACTOR WHICH LIMIT THE 𝑽𝒎
𝑿𝑳 = = 𝝎𝑳
CURRENT FLOW IN THE CIRCUIT 𝑰𝒎
PHASE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN 𝝋 = 𝝅/𝟐
CURRENT AND VOLTAGE Current lags voltage
AVERAGE POWER CONSUMED 〈𝑷𝒕 〉 = 𝟎
OVER A COMPLETE CYCLE
SERIES LCR CIRCUIT

In a series LCR circuit, same current flows through all the elements. But the potential difference across the
elements (L, C and R) are different.

At any instant,

Voltage drop across the resistor: 𝑽𝒕 = 𝑰𝒕 𝑹

𝒒𝒕
Voltage drop across the capacitor: 𝑽𝒕 = 𝑪

𝒅𝑰
Voltage drop across the inductor: 𝜺 = 𝑳
𝒅𝒕

Applied voltage in the circuit: 𝑉𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡

The net voltage in the circuit at any instant is the sum of the voltages across the elements (L, C and R)
in the circuit.

𝑑𝐼 𝑞
𝐿 + + 𝐼𝑅 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝐶

𝑑𝑞
𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝐼 =
𝑑𝑡

𝑑2 𝑞 𝑑𝑞 𝑞
∴𝐿 + 𝑅 + = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝐶

The current in the circuit is given by:

𝐼(𝑡) = 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 ± 𝜑)

Where φ is the phase difference between the current and voltage in the circuit and ω is the angular frequency
of the oscillations of I and V.

IMPEDANCE (Z)

Electrical impedance is the measure of the opposition that a circuit presents to the flow of current when a
voltage is applied.

𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠
𝑍= =
𝐼𝑚 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
SI unit: Ω

PHASOR DIAGRAM SOLUTION OF SERIES LCR CIRCUIT In a series LCR circuit, same current
flows through all the elements. The potential drop across the resistor is in phase with the current. The
potential drop across C lags behind the current by π/2 and the potential drop across L leads the voltage by
π/2.

𝐼⃗ − 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑅 − 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝐶 − 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑜𝑟

⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝐿 − 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

⃗⃗ − 𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡

𝑉

𝑉𝑅 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑅

𝑉𝐿 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝐿

𝑉𝐶 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝐶

If VC > VL 𝑉𝐶 − 𝑉𝐿 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝐿 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶

𝑂𝐸 = 𝑉𝑚 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡

𝜑 − 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒

𝐼𝑚 − 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡

𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟 ∶ 𝑉𝑅 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑅

 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑜𝑟 ∶ 𝑉𝐶 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑋𝐶

𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟 ∶ 𝑉𝐿 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑋𝐿

𝑉𝑚
𝑍=
𝐼𝑚

𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 ∆𝑂𝐷𝐸 𝑂𝐸 = √𝑂𝐴2 + 𝐴𝐸 2

𝑉𝑚 = √𝑉𝑅 2 + (𝑉𝐶 − 𝑉𝐿 )2

𝑉𝑚 = √𝐼𝑚 2 𝑅 2 + 𝐼𝑚 2 (𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿 )2

𝑉𝑚 = 𝐼𝑚 √𝑅 2 + (𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿 )2

𝑉𝑚
= √𝑅 2 + (𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿 )2
𝐼𝑚

𝑍 = √𝑅 2 + (𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿 )2

PHASE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CURRENT AND VOLTAGE

𝑉𝑚𝐶 − 𝑉𝑚𝐿
tan 𝜑 =
𝑉𝑅

𝐼𝑚 (𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿 )
tan 𝜑 =
𝐼𝑚 𝑅

(𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿 )
tan 𝜑 =
𝑅

NOTE:

1. If the capacitive reactance in the circuit (𝑋𝐶 ) is greater than the inductive reactance (𝑋𝐿 ) , the
amplitude of the voltage drops across the capacitor (𝑉𝑚𝐶 ) will be greater than the amplitude of the
potential drop across the inductor (𝑉𝑚𝐿 ). The circuit acts predominantly as a capacitive circuit and
the current in the circuit leads voltage by an angle φ given by:

(𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿 )
tan 𝜑 =
𝑅

2. If the inductive reactance in the circuit (𝑋𝐿 ) is greater than the capacitive reactance (𝑋𝐶 ) , the
amplitude of the voltage drop across the inductor (𝑉𝑚𝐿 ) will be greater than the amplitude of the
 potential drop across the capacitor (𝑉𝑚𝐶 ). The circuit acts predominantly as a inductive circuit and
the current in the circuit lags behind the voltage by an angle φ given by:
(𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )
tan 𝜑 =
𝑅
3. If the capacitive reactance in the circuit (𝑋𝐶 ) is equal to the inductive reactance (𝑋𝐿 ) , the amplitude
of the voltage drops across the capacitor (𝑉𝑚𝐶 ) will be equal to the amplitude of the potential drop
across the inductor (𝑉𝑚𝐿 ). The current in the circuit will be in phase with the voltage and the phase
difference between the current and voltage will be equal to zero.
𝜑=0

VARIABLE FREQUENCY AC SOURCE CONNECTED ACROSS THE SERIES

COMBINATION OF L, C AND R

Let’s consider a series LCR circuit in which a variable frequency ac voltage source is connected. Let’s
assume that the amplitude of the voltage is constant.
When this voltage source is connected across the series combination of L, C and R:
PYSICAL QUANTITY VARIATION WITH FREQUENCY
Resistance ( R) Independent of frequency. Hence it remains the
same.
Capacitive reactance: Decreases with increase in frequency.
𝟏 𝟏
𝑿𝑪 = =
𝑪𝝎 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝑪
Inductive reactance: Increases with increasing frequency.
𝑿𝑳 = 𝝎𝑳 = 𝟐𝝅𝒇

Impedance in the circuit: Changes with frequency.

𝒁 = √𝑹𝟐 + (𝑿𝑳 − 𝑿𝑪 )𝟐

Amplitude of the current in the circuit: Changes with frequency.

𝑽𝒎
𝑰𝒎 =
𝒁
Phase difference between current and voltage in Changes with frequency
the circuit: (φ)
 VARIATION OF IMPEDANCE (Z) WITH FREQUENCY OF APPLIED VOLTAGE
As the frequency of the applied ac voltage increases, Z first decreases, reaches a minimum value at f=f 0
(resonance frequency) then start to increase with increasing frequency.
When XC = XL, impedance becomes minimum

𝒁 = √𝑹𝟐 + (𝑿𝑳 − 𝑿𝑪 )𝟐

When XC = XL,

𝒁 = 𝒁𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝑹

That is the minimum value of the impedance is equal to the resistance of the circuit

If the resistance in the circuit is zero, the minimum value of the impedance will be equal to zero at f=fo

VARIATION OF THE AMPLITUDE OF CURRENNT IN THE CIRCUIT WITH THE

FREQUENCY OF APPLIED AC VOLTAGE

𝑽𝒎
𝑰𝒎 =
𝒁

As the frequency of the applied ac voltage increases, the amplitude of the current first increases, it reaches a
maximum value when f=f0 (resonance frequency), then start to decrease with the further increase in the
frequency.
PHASE DIFFERENCE AND FREQUENCY OF APPLIED AC VOLTAGE

➢ If the frequency of the applied ac is less than the resonance frequency ( f<fo), the capacitive
reactance in the circuit will be greater than the inductive reactance ( XC > XL). Hence the circuit acts
predominantly as a capacitive circuit and the current in the circuit leads the voltage by an angle φ
given by:
(𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿 )
tan 𝜑 =
𝑅
➢ If the frequency of the applied ac is greater than the resonance frequency (f>fo), the capacitive
reactance in the circuit will be greater than the inductive reactance ( XL > XC). Hence the circuit acts
predominantly as an inductive circuit and the current in the circuit lags behind the voltage by an
angle φ given by:
(𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )
tan 𝜑 =
𝑅
➢ If the frequency of the applied ac is equal to the resonance frequency (f=fo), the capacitive reactance
in the circuit will be equal to the inductive reactance (XC = XL). Hence the circuit acts predominantly
as a capacitive circuit and the current in the circuit will be in phase with the voltage:
𝜑=0
DRIVEN / FORCED OSCILLATIONS AND RESONANCE IN A SERIES LCR CIRCUIT
An LCR circuit is an electrical oscillator which exhibits electrical oscillations when connected across an ac
voltage source. The current in the circuit oscillates with the frequency of the applied ac voltage. These
oscillations are forced / driven oscillations.
If the frequency of the applied ac voltage changes, the amplitude of the current in the circuit (ie the
amplitude of the oscillations) also changes. The circuit oscillates with maximum amplitude when the
amplitude of the applied voltage is equal to the natural frequency of the circuit.
When the amplitude of the current in the circuit is maximum, an LCR circuit is said to be at resonance.
RESONANCE CONDITION (XL = XC)
An LCR circuit is said to be at resonance, when the amplitude of the current in the circuit is maximum.
The amplitude of the current in the circuit is given by:

𝑽𝒎
𝑰𝒎 =
𝒁

Where

𝒁 = √𝑹𝟐 + (𝑿𝑳 − 𝑿𝑪 )𝟐

⸫ The impedance in the circuit reaches minimum and hence the amplitude of the current in the circuit
reaches maximum when the inductive reactance and capacitive reactance are equal.
 𝑖𝑒, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑋𝐿 = 𝑋𝐶 ,

𝑍 = 𝑍𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑅

𝑉𝑚
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼𝑚 = (𝐼𝑚 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑅

RESONANCE FREQUENCY (f0)

(NATURAL FREQUENCY OF THE LCR CIRCUIT)

It is the frequency at which the amplitude of the current in the circuit becomes maximum.

At resonance f= fo, and

𝑋𝐿 = 𝑋𝐶

1
2𝜋𝑓0 𝐿 =
2𝜋𝑓0 𝐶

1
𝑓0 2 =
4𝜋 2 𝐿𝐶

1
∴ 𝑓0 =
2𝜋√𝐿𝐶

Where f0 is the resonance frequency of the circuit.

RESONANCE CURVE

The graph which shows the variation in the amplitude of current with the frequency of the applied ac is
called the resonance curve.

Resonance curve of LCR circuits with different resistance values

 𝑉𝑚
As the resistance increases, (Im)max decreases since (𝐼𝑚 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑅

IN AN LCR CIRCUIT AT RESONANCE:

𝑋𝐿 = 𝑋𝐶 Capacitive reactance becomes equal to inductive

reactance
𝑍 = 𝑍𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑅 Impedance in the circuit becomes minimum

𝑉𝑚 Amplitude in the circuit becomes maximum

𝐼𝑚 = (𝐼𝑚 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑅

𝑉𝑚𝐿 = 𝑉𝑚𝐶 Amplitude of voltage across inductor becomes equal

to the amplitude of voltage across the inductor
𝜑=0 Phase difference between the current and voltage
becomes zero
cos 𝜑 = 1 Power factor becomes maximum

〈𝑃〉 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 Average power consumed in the circuit becomes

maximum
1 Applied ac frequency becomes equal to the natural
𝑓 = 𝑓0 =
2𝜋√𝐿𝐶 frequency of the circuit

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF RESONANE IN LCR CIRUIT

1. IN THE TUNING MECHANISM OF RADIO OR TV
The antenna of a radio accepts signals from many broadcasting stations. But to hear a particular station,
we need to tune the radio.
The tuning circuit is basically an LCR circuit. The signals picked up in the antenna acts as an ac source in
the tuning circuit. The circuit is thus be driven at many frequencies from different broadcasting station.
The tuning circuit is an LCR circuit with a variable capacitor. In tuning, we vary the capacitance of the
capacitor such that the resonance frequency of the circuit becomes nearly equal to the frequency of the
radio signal to be received. When this happens, the amplitude of the current with that frequency becomes
maximum in the circuit.
BAND WIDTH OF TUNING CIRCUIT
Band width of a tuning circuit is the range of frequencies for which the power consumed in the circuit is
more than half of the maximum power consumed.
The power consumed is maximum at resonance. At resonance, the amplitude of the current in the circuit
is maximum
 If the amplitude of the current in the circuit is 1⁄ times the maximum amplitude, the power consumed
√2
will be equal to half of the maximum power consumed in the circuit.
BAND WIDTH FROM RESONANCE CURVE

𝜔1 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑓𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦

𝜔2 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑓𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ = 𝜔1 − 𝜔2 = 2∆𝜔
QUALITY FACTOR OF TUNING CIRCUIT (Q-factor)
𝑓0
𝑄 − 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
2∆𝜔
It is the ratio of the resonance frequency to the band width of the circuit

When the sharpness of the resonance curve increases, the band width decreases and hence the quality
factor increases, the selectivity of the tuning circuit increases which provides quality tuning.

EXPRESSION FOR QUALITY FACTOR IN TERMS OF L, C AND R

1 𝐿
𝑄 − 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = √
𝑅 𝐶

RESONANCE LCR CIRCUIT AS METAL DETECTOR

At an airport, a person is made to walk through the door way of a metal detector, for security reasons. If
she/he is carrying anything made of metal, the metal detector emits a sound

This metal detector works on the principle of resonance in LC circuits.

When you walk through a metal detector, you are in fact walking through a coil of many turns (inductor).
This coil is connected to a capacitor and the circuit is set in resonance. When you walk through the coil with
metal, the impedance of the circuit changes resulting in a significant change in the current in the circuit.
An electronic circuit connected to the LC circuit detects this change in current and causes a sound to emit as
an alarm.

〈𝑃〉 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 cos 𝜑

(𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 )2
〈𝑃〉 = cos 𝜑
𝑍
〈𝑃〉 = (𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 )2 𝑍 cos 𝜑

Phase Power factor

circuit difference (cos φ) Average power consumed
(φ)
Resistive circuit 0 1 (𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 )2
〈𝑃〉 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = = (𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 )2 𝑅
𝑅
Capacitive 900 0 0
circuits
Inductive circuit 900 0 0
LCR circuit at (𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 )2
〈𝑃〉 = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = = (𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 )2 𝑅
resonance 0 1 𝑅

TRANSFORMER

USE: transformers are used to increase or decrease ac voltage

The large-scale transmission and distribution of electrical energy over long distances is done with the help of
transformers. The voltage output of the generator is stepped-up so that current is reduced and consequently,
the heat loss is cut down. It is then transmitted over long distances to an area sub-station near the consumer.
There the voltage is stepped down. It is further stepped down at distributing sub-stations and utility poles
before a power supply of 240 V reaches our home.
STRUCTURE

A transformer consists of two sets of coils, insulated from each other. They are wound on a soft iron core.
One of these coils is the input coil called the primary coil. Other coil is the output coil called the secondary
coil.
STEP-UP AND STEP-DOWN TRANSFORMERS
A step-up transformer is used to increase AC voltage
The number of turns in the primary coil is less than the number of turns in the secondary.

A step-down transformer is used to decrease the AC voltage.

The number of turns in the secondary is less than the number of turns in the primary

CIRCUIT SYMBOL

THEORY AND WORKING

A transformer works on mutual induction
Let Np and Ns be the number of turns in the primary and secondary respectively. When ac is applied to
primary, the current through the primary coil changes which changes the flux linked with the primary and
secondary.
When the flux linked with primary changes, an emf is induced in the primary coil due to self-induction. The
emf induced in the primary is:
𝑑𝜑𝑃
𝜀𝑃 = 𝑁𝑃 𝑑𝑡
-------- (1)

Where 𝜑𝑃 is the flux linked with the primary coil.

When the flux linked with the secondary coil changes, an emf is induced in the secondary coil due to mutual
induction. The emf induced in the secondary is:
𝑑𝜑𝑠
𝜀𝑠 = 𝑁𝑠 --------- (2)
𝑑𝑡

(2)/(1) gives:
𝑑𝜑𝑠⁄
𝜀𝑠 𝑁𝑠 𝑑𝑡
= 𝑑𝜑 ---------------- (3)
𝜀𝑝 𝑁𝑝 𝑝⁄𝑑𝑡

ASSUMPTIOS FOR AN IDEAL TRANSFORMER

• Primary has negligible resistance and current
⸫ The induced emf in the primary is equal to the applied voltage.
𝜀𝑝 = 𝑣𝑝
• The secondary current is small.
⸫ The induced emf in the secondary is equal to the potential difference across the secondary coil.
𝜀𝑠 = 𝑣𝑠
• The same flux links with both primary and the secondary
𝝋𝒔 = 𝝋𝒑

Based on the assumptions, equation 3 becomes:

𝑉𝑠 𝑁
= 𝑁𝑠 -------- (4)
𝑉𝑝 𝑝

EFFICIENCY OF TRANSFORMER

𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦: 𝜂 = 𝑋 100
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
TRANSFORMER RATIO
For an ideal transformer, output power= input power
𝑉𝑠 𝐼𝑠 = 𝑉𝑝 𝐼𝑝
𝑉𝑆 𝐼𝑃
= ------ (5)
𝑉𝑃 𝐼𝑆

From 4 and 5,
𝑁𝑆 𝑉𝑆 𝐼𝑃
= =
𝑁𝑃 𝑉𝑃 𝐼𝑆
IN ACTUAL TRANSFORMERS, ENERGY LOSSES OCCUR DUE TO THE FOLLOWING
REASONS
1. FLUX LEAKAGE
There is always a flux leakage in a transformer. Not all of the flux due to primary passes through the
secondary due to poor design of the core or the air gaps in the core. It can be reduced by winding the
primary and the secondary coils one over the other.
 2. RESISTANCE OF THE WINDINGS
The wire used for the windings has some resistance and so, energy is lost as heat. These can be
minimized by using thick wires.
3. EDDY CURRENTS
The alternating magnetic flux induces eddy currents in the iron core and causes heating. This is reduced
by using laminated core.
4. HYSTERESIS LOSS
The magnetization of the core is repeatedly reversed by the alternating magnetic field. This results in
the loss of energy as heat in the core. It can be reduced by using a magnetic material which has a low
hysteresis loss. (eg: soft iron)

VARIATION OF CURRENT, VOLTAGE AND POWER

RESISTIVE CIRCUIT CAPACITIVE CIRCUIT INDUCTIVE CIRCUIT

Current and voltage are in Current leads voltage Current lags voltage
phase

Average power consumed is Average power consumed is zero Average power consumed is
not zero zero