ELECTRONICS

ELECTRONICS
ELECTRONIC DEVICE:

It is a device whose action is based on the controlled flow of electrons through it.

Electronics: The branch of physics that deals with the study of these electronic devices is called electronics.

Classification solids on the basis of their conductivity and resistivity:

1. Good conductors (Metals):

They are the materials having very low resistivity or high conductivity.
 Resistivity, ꝭ ~102 Ωm to108 Ωm
 Conductivity,  ~102 Sm1 to108 Sm1
Usually metals are good conductors, large no. of free electrons are the charge carriers and thus a
conductor allows large current to flow.
Examples: Cu, Al, Fe, Ag, Au…..
2. Insulators (Bad conductors):
They are the materials having high resistivity or low conductivity and hence don’t allow current
through them.
 Resistivity, ꝭ ~108 Ωm
 Conductivity,  ~108 Sm1

An insulator usually does not contain free electrons.

Examples: Rubber, glass, mica, dry wood, paper, plastic, porcelain….

3. Semiconductors:
They are the materials having resistivity or conductivity intermediate to metals and insulators.
 Resistivity, ꝭ ~105 Ωm to100 Ωm
 Conductivity,  ~105 Sm1 to100 Sm1

Examples: Germanium (Ge), Silicon (Si). Compound semiconductors: CdS, GaAS, CdSe, ….

 Semiconductors have negative and high temperature coefficient, i.e., resistivity of semiconductors
decreases rapidly with temperature, while that of metals increases.
 Semiconductors have lower number density n of charge carriers (n= no. of charge carriers per unit
volume) than metals.
Semiconductors:
(a) Intrinsic semiconductors.
(b) Extrinsic semiconductors.
(a) Intrinsic semiconductor:
The pure semiconductors (impurities less than 1 part in 1010) are called intrinsic semiconductors.
 Electrons and holes are intrinsic charge carriers in an intrinsic semiconductor holes are
essentially electrons vacancies with an effective positive charge.
 At room temperature some electrons break away from the co-valent bonds and become free.
These thermo electrons leave behind vacancies in the co-valent bonds. Each such vacancy
with an effective positive charge is a hole. This behaves as an apparent free particle. The
motion of both free electrons and holes contribute to the current in the semiconductor.

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 At low temperature no electron can come out of co-valent bond. So a semiconductor at low
temperature is an insulator. (A semiconductor at 0 K in an insulator).
 In an intrinsic semiconductor the number density of free electrons (ne) is equal to the no.
density of holes (nh), i.e., ne= nh.

Let us consider a crystal of Ge(=32)=2, 8, 18, 4 or Si(=14)=2, 8, 4. In its bond structure, each atom is
tetrahedrally bonded to four neighbouring atoms.

(Co-valent bondingin Ge or Si)

(Generation of hole at a bond due to thermally
generated fee electron)
 The shared pair of electrons oscillate back-  At a high temperature (room temperature or
and forth between the two atoms. Such more) some electrons break way from
structure with all bonds intact exists at low covalent bonds and made free charge carriers
temperature. so it behaves as a bad and leave behind vacancies in the covalent
conductor for no free charges bonds. Electron from a neighbouring atom
may jump to the created hole leaving behind a
new hole at its place in the co-valent bond. So
the hole appears moving. Therefore both
electrons and holes are charge carriers.
 An intrinsic semi semiconductor is electrically neutral.
When connected to an electrical source (battery), holes move (due to jumping of bound electrons in
the reverse direction from one atom to another). So holes act as positive charge carriers and give rise
to a hole current (Ih). The thermally generated free electrons give rise to an independent electron
current (Ie). The total current in the intrinsic semiconductor, I=Ie+Ih.
 Inside the intrinsic semiconductor both holes and electrons move but in the external circuit only
electrons (thermally created electrons and other due to shifting of electrons in the structure) run.

Ge Ge Ge Ge

Curren
Ge Ge Ge Ge

Ge Ge Ge Ge

+
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Extrinsic Semiconductor:

An extrinsic semiconductor is made by doping an intrinsic semiconductor with small amount of desirable
impurity atoms.

 Extrinsic semiconductor = Intrinsic semiconductor + impurity atoms

Doping: It is the process of deliberate addition of desirable impurity atoms (in small proportion) to a pure
semiconductor so as to increase its conductivity.

 The impurity atoms so added are called dopants and the semiconductor doped with impurity
atoms is called an extrinsic semiconductor.

N  type extrinsic semiconductors.

Extrinsic semiconductors
P  type extrinsic semiconductors.

(A) N-type extrinsic semiconductor:

This semiconductor is obtained by doping an intrinsic semiconductor (Ge or Si) with required
quantity of suitable pentavalent impurity atoms (As, P or Sb).
N-type semiconductor = intrinsic semiconductor + pentavalent imparity atoms.
Example: Ge + As Ge (= 32) = 2, 8, 18, 4
Ge + Sb intrinsic semiconductor
Si(= 14) = 2, 8, 4 

As  33 = 2, 8, 18, 5 
Sb  51  2, 8, 18, 18, 5Pentavalent departs
P  15  2, 8, 5 

The 5th electron of every pentavalent upurity atom has no place in the co-valent bond and therefore
relatively free i.e., a very small amount ionization energy (0.01eV for Ge and 0.05 V for Si) is required to
detach this electron. So the no. of extra free electrons (other than the thermally generated electrons) is equal
to the no. of pentavalent impurity atoms in the crystal. The no. density of free electrons. (some due to doping
+ some due to thermal energy) is more than the no. density of holes, i.e., ne > nh so free electrons are the
majority charge carriers and holes are the minority charge carriers in an N-type crystal. However the N-type
semiconductor in electrically neutral.

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Electron Donor core

   
As
neutral   
  

If the 5th electron goes out the (n-type material showing fixed
donor core atom becomes a cores, each with a positive charge
and associated electron)
positive ion 

(B) P-type extrinsic semiconductor:

This semiconductor is obtained by doping an intrinsic semiconductor (Ge or Si) with required
quantity of suitable trivalent impurity atoms (In, Ga or B).
 P-type semiconductor = intrinsic semiconductor + trivalent impurity atoms

Examples:

Ge  In Ge  Ga Ge  B
Si  In Si  Ga Si  B

In(=49)=2, 8, 18, 18, 3

Ga(=31)=2, 8, 18, 3

B(=5)=2, 3

For each trivalent atom, one electron in short to share with a neighbouring Ge or Si atom so as to satisfy four
co-valent bonds with 4 atoms. This shortage of an electron is a vacancy and is treated as a hole. Then an
from the neighbouring Ge-Ge or Si-Si Co-valent bond can slide in to the vacancy, creating a new hole in that
bond.
Hole Acceptore core

In
(neutral)

If the hole in filled in, the

acceptor core becomes negative. 1.

There are as many numbers of holes as the accepter-trivalent impurity atoms in a specimen. So the
total number of holes in a P-type extrinsic semiconductor (due thermally generated holes + due to addition
of impurities) is more than the no. of free electrons. Therefore no. density of holes is more than the no.
density of free electrons, i.e., nh> ne. Thus holes are majority charge carriers and electrons are minority
charge carriers in a P-type crystal. However a P-type semiconductor is electrically neutral.

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Note:
Let, ni is the charges concentration in an intrinsic semiconductor (Which is to be doped with suitable
impurity atoms, forming an extrinsic semiconductor). Say, ne and nh are no. densities of free electrons or
holes respectively in the extrinsic semiconductor obtained by doping.
Then ne nh  ni2
Energy Level:
An electron in an orbit of an isolated atom has a sharp value/ discrete value of energy. So this definite or
discrete value of energy associated with an electron in an orbit of an atom is called energy level.

Energy
7.3 eV (say)
3rd energy level
5.1 eV (say)
2nd energy level
3.2 eV (say)
1st energy level

Edge of nucleus

An isolated atom

Discussion:

In a block of material an atom is jam packed by the neighbouring atoms as a result an electron in an orbit is
largely influenced by the electrostatic fields of neighbouring atoms. Therefore an electron in an orbit of an
atom, instead of having a single valued energy, possesses a range of energies. This range of energies,
consisting of closely packed energy levels is called an energy band of the orbit.

ENERGY BANDS IN SOLIDS:

From Bohr’s atomic model we know that the electrons have well defined discrete energy levels in an
isolated atom. But due to interatomic interaction in a crystal, the electrons of outer shells are forced to have
energies different from those in isolated atoms. Each energy level splits into large number of fine energy
levels, forming a continulous band, called energy band.

Energy band:

An enormously large number sharp energy levels closely spaced in a very small energy range constitute an
energy band.

Discussion:

Let us take the example of sodium (Z=11). The electronic configuration of sodium is 1S2, 2S2, 2P6, 3S1. The
corresponding discrete energy levels and the energy band of valence electron are shown in the figures
belong.
3s1
2p6
(Valence energy band
2s 2 of Na-Crystal)

1s2
(Electron distribution (Discrete energy levels
isolated Sodium) of an isolated Na-atom)
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Valence energy band:

The highest energy bond containing valence electrons is called valence energy band.

Note: Very large no. of fine energy levels associated with valence electrons of an atoms in a solid, constitute
valence energy band.

Conduction energy band:

The lowest unfilled allowed energy band next to valence bond is called conduction energy band.

Note: Above conduction band the allowed energy band, consisting of large no. of closely spaced fine energy
levels, called conduction band.

Empty Conduction energy band

EC
Eg

EV
Filled Valence energy band

(Infinite no. of states each occupied by two electrons)

Note: All energy levels in valence band are filled while the energy levels in conduction band may be empty
or partially filled. The electrons if present in conduction band are responsible for current in the solid.

Forbidden energy gap (Eg):

The gap between top of valence band and bottom of conduction band in which no allowed energy levels can
exist is called energy band gap (Eg).

Distinction between metals, insulators and semiconductors on the basis of band theory:

(a) Metals (or conductors):

Here the conduction band partially filled with electrons. This is possible by following two ways.
1. Either there is energy gap between the completely filled valence band and the partially filled
conduction band.

CB Partially filled Conduction Band

VB Filled Valence Band

This band structure is met in alkali metals (Li, Na, K etc) nobel metals (Cu, Ag, Au) and third group
elements (Al, Ga, In, TI).

2. Or the conduction band and valence band partially overlap.

Empty
conduction band Overlaping conduction band
Filled valence band

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This band structure is seen in metals like Be, Mg, Zn etc. here the valence band is completely filled and the
upper unoccupied band partly overlap the

Note: The higher energy level in the conduction band filled p with electrons at absolute zero is called Fermi
level and the energy corresponding to the Fermi level is called Fermi energy.

Many electrons after gaining a slight amount of energy from any source get excited to the empty energy
levels lying immediately above the Fermi level and become free to conduct electricity. This makes available
a large number of conduction electrons. So metals have high conductivity or low resistivity. So a small
electric field applied across the metal causes a current flow through it.

Insulators:

In insulators the valence band is completely filled and conduction band is empty. There is a large energy gap
between the valence and conduction band (Eg>3eV).

Empty conduction band

Eg > 3 eV

Filled valence band

Examples: Diamond (Eg=6eV), glass, rubber, mica, dry wood, paper, plastic etc.

Note: Even an electric field cannot give this much of energy to an electron to make it jump from the valence
band in to the conduction band. Hence due to lack of free electrons in the conduction band, the insulators are
poor conductor of electricity.

Semiconductors:

In semiconductors, the energy gap between valence band and conductor is small (Eg<3eV)

For example Eg = 1.17 eV for Si and Eg = 0.74 eV for Ge.

Empty conduction band

Eg < 3 eV

Filled valence band

Note: At OK the conduction band is empty, the valence band is filled. So the material is essentially an
insulator at very low temp (T ~ OK).

At room temperature some valence electrons acquire enough thermal energy and jump to conduction band
where they are free to conduct electricity. So semi conductors have small conductivity.

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Q. What is an intrinsic semiconductor? Give examples. Describe the current conduction in an intrinsic
semiconductor.

Ans. A semiconductor in its pure form (impurities less than 1 part in 1010) is called intrinsic semiconductor.

Example: pure Si-Crystal pure Ge-Crystal

The presence of mobile charge carriers (electrons & holes) are obtained as a result of thermal excitation.
Holes are essentially electron vacancies with an effective positive charge. In an intrinsic semiconductor the
no. density of electrons (ne) is equal to the number density of holes (nh). Under the action of electric field
(applied across an intrinsic semiconductor) both electro current (Ie) and hole current (Ih) conduct in the
crystal.

The total current is

I=Ie+Ih.

Extrinsic semiconductors:

(a) N-type extrinsic semiconductors and

(b) P-type extrinsic semiconductors.

PN Junction/ Junction Diode:

It is a single crystal of Ge or Si doped in a manner such that one half portion of it acts as P-type semi
conductor and the other half as N-type semiconductor.

Unbiased PN Junction:
At the junction holes begin to diffuse from P-side to N-side and electrons diffuse from N-side to P-side As
the holes difuse from P to N side, they leave behind –ve acceptor ions which set up a layer of negatie charge
or negative space charge region on the p-side of the junction. Similarly, as electrons diffuse from n to p side,
they leave behind +ve space charge region on n-side of the junction. Consequenty no charge carriers are left
in a small region near the junction.
Depletion region:
The small region in the vicinity of the junction (of a P-N diode) which is depleted of free charge carriers and
has only immobile ions, is called depletion region.

Fictitious battery Junction

Accepton ion Doner ion

Hole  Electron




P-type n-type
Depletion Layer

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P-type N-type

Holes diffusion
Electrons diffusion

Depletion region
Potential barrier:
The accumulation of negative charges in the P-region and positive charges in the n-region sets up a potential
difference across the junction, called potential barrier.
Diffusion current:
The diffusion of majority charge carriers (holes from P to N and electrons from n to P side) across the
junction gives rise to an electric current from P to n side and is called diffusion current.

P-type N-type

VB=potential barrier

Circuit symbols of Pn-diode:

arrow

bar

The direction of arrow is from P-region to n-region.

Forward biasing:

If the positive terminal of a battery is connected to the P-side and the negative terminal to the n-side, then
the p-n-junction, then the p-n junction is forward biased.
V
VB
p-n diode
P n
+

mA

R

+ 

+ 
V

When V (= the pot. difference applied across the junction) exceeds

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VB (= the potential barrier) the majority charge carriers flow easily across the junction and set up a large
current  mA , called forward current. The current increases with the increase in applied voltage.

Note: In this biasing junction resistance decreases

Reverse biasing:

If the positive terminal of a battery is connected to the n-side and the negative terminal to the p-side, then
the p-n junction is reverse biased.
V
VB
J
p-n diode
P n
 mA
Depletion Layer R

+
 +

 +
V
 In this case the barrier potential increase to (V+VB).
 The majority charge carriers move away from the junction, increasing the width of the depletion
layer.
 The junction resistance increases to large value.
 No current flows across the junction due to majority charge carriers.
 Small no. of minority charge carriers (electrons in P-region & holes in n-region) move across the
junction and set up a small current in opposite direction  μA  , called reverse current/ leakage
current.

V-I characteristics of a P-N-junction diode:

A graph showing the variation of current flowing through a pn-junction with the voltage applied across it is
called voltage-current or VI characteristic of the pn-diode.

 Under forward bias condition the variation in current with variation of forward voltage is called forward
characteristic.
80
70 Voltmeter
60
50

Forward 40

current 30 P-n diode (V)

Milliameter
in mA 20
Rheostat
10

0 1 2 3
Cut-in voltage V (forward) + 

(Forward Characteristics in volt of R n diode)

(i) V-I characteristic is not a straight line. So pn diode does to obey Ohm’s law

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(ii) Threshold voltage or cut-in voltage: At the beginning current in a pn diode increases very slowly
till the voltage across the diode crosses a certain value, called cut-in voltage.
(iii)After the cut-in voltage the diode current increases rapidly even for a very small increases in the
diode bias voltage. The resistance across the diode becomes very small.

Reverse bias characteristic:

V (reverse bias) Voltmeter

-4 -3 -2 -1 0

- 0.5

Microampere
P-n diode
- 1.0 μA

- 1.5
Switch

- 2.0  +

The V-I character of a pn-diode under reverse bias mode is shown in the figure.

(i) When the diode is reverse biased, the reverse current is very small at the beginning ~ μA  .
This small current, which is almost constant, is called reverse saturation current.
(ii) When the reverse voltage across the pn-diode reaches at the sufficiently high value, the
reverse current suddenly increases to a large value.
 This high particular voltage at which the junction diode breaks down and sends very large
current is called zener breakdown voltage or peak inverse voltage of the diode.

Zener diode:

 A junction diode specially designed to operate only in the reverse breakdown region
continuously is called a zener diode.
Symbol:

Zener breakdown: The definite high negative voltage, applied across a PN-diode at which a large
current flows in the reverse direction, is the zener breakdown voltage.

Zener Characteristic:

Ir in μA

Zener
Vr in volt

breakdown
voltage

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Explanation for zener breakdown:

 In a heavily doped PN-diode (zener diode) the width of depletion layer is very small (<10-7 m) and
 V
the barrier field E   is high. Even a small voltage (say 4V) sets up a very large electric field
 d
-7 -1
(~4×10 Vm ).
 This strong electric field strips of many electrons from valence band which tunnel to the n-side
through the narrow depletion layer.
 This method of emission of electrons beyond a certain reverse bias VZ in called internal field
emission. This gives rise to a large reverse current. Due to the formation of electron-hole pairs, no. of
minority charge carriers increases, leading to increase in current. The potential difference across the
zener diode (and hence the load, connected parallel it) is kept at a constant value (=VZ). The increase
in reverse d.c. input voltage results in increases in current (because resistance across the zener diode
decreases in proportion).

Zener diode as voltage regulator:

The fig. shows the circuit of a voltage regulator.

RS IL
I IZ
V V0 RL

The P.D. across the load (of resistance RL) is kept constant, equals the zener breakdown voltage (=VZ). The
variation of input voltage V is adjusted across the drop resistor (of resistance RS)

I  IZ  IL Regulated output voltage

Output voltage

V  IR S  VZ
 IR S  V0
 V0  V  IR S
Input voltage

When input voltage V increases, the value of I increases so that V0 remains constant.

Photo diode:

A photo diode is a P-N junction, fabricated from a photo sensitive semiconductor and provided with a
transparent window so as allow light to fall on its junction.

 A photo diode is operated in reverse bias, below the breakdown voltage.

Anode Cathode

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Working:

When a photo diode is illuminated with light photons of energy, h  E g . Additional electron-hole pairs are
formed near the junction. Due to the junction field electrons are collected on n-side and holes on p-side so
that a potential difference is set up. This P.D. sends a current through the load. It has been observed that the
photo current through the circuit increases with increase in intensity of incident radiation. Hence a photo
diode can be used to detect optical signals.

P N Reverse biase

Reverse current
I1
μA
I2
I3
R I4
I4>I3>I2>I1
 +

On increase of intensity of incident light. The value of reverse saturation current increases.

Uses of photodiodes:

1. In detection of optical signals.

2. In demodulation of optical signals.
3. In light operated switches.
4. In speed reading of computer punched cards.

LIGHT EMITTING DIODE:

It is a heaviely doped forward-biased pn-diode which spontaneously converts electric energy into optical
energy (like infrared and visible light)

Symbol:

or

Actual shape of LED:

Cathode
Anode

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Construction & working:

The construction is shown by the diagram (It is made from InP or gallium-arsenide).

R

N Metallised
contact
+

When it is forward biased through a series resistance, light photons are emitted from the non-metallised
surface of n-region. The series resistance (R) limits the current in LED and hence controls the intensity of
light emitted.

Principle:

Since formation of electron-hole pair requires energy recombination of electrons and holes, near the junction
releases light energy.

Mechanism:

In a forward biased P-N-Diode electrons are sent from n-region to P-region (where they are minority
carriers) and holes are sent from P-region to n-region (where they are minority carriers) near the junction
minority carriers increases as compared to equilibrium concentration on either side of the junction the excess
minority carriers combine with the majority carriers. On recombination, the energy is released in the form of
photons.

Two important features are:

1. The colour of high emitted by an LED. Depends on its band gap energy.
2. The intensity of high emitted depends on the forward current conducted by the pn-diode.

Uses:

1. Infrared LEDs are used in burglar systems.

2. In optical communication.
3. In image scanning
4. In indicator lamps

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SOLAR CELL:

It is a junction diode which converts solar energy in the electrical energy.

Construction:

The construction in shown in the figure

Symbol

(a) (b) (c)

(a) Typical pn-junction solar cell

(b) Cross-sectional view.

(c) Symbol.

Working:

When a solar cell is illuminated with light photons of energy h  E g . It generates emf due to following 3
processes, VIZ, generation, separation and collection.

(a) Generation: Electron-hole pairs are generated due to excitation of electrons from valence band to
the conduction band by the light photons of energy h , incident on it.
(b) Separation: Separation of electrons and holes due to the electric field of the depletion region.
Electrons are swept to n-region and holes to p-region.
(c) Collecton: Electron reaching the n-side are collected by the front contact and holes by the back
contact.
RL

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The P-side becomes +ve and n-side as –ve giving rise to photo-voltage across the junction. When a load
resistance is connected in the external circuit, photo current IL flows.

Uses:

1) To charge storage battery

2) Used in light meter in photography.
3) Used to power wrist watch & hand calculator.
4) Space craft uses solar panels to provide electrical energy.

Direct Current (D.C):

The current whose magnitude remains equal (over whole period of operation) and flows in the same
direction is called direct current.

Note: A battery is a d.c. source

I in A

I= d.c.

t in second
+ 
Magnitude of current remains the same, i.e., graph is parallel to the time axis. The graph is always above the
time axis (not coming below to the time axis), indicating unidirectional flows d.c.

Alternative Current (A.C):

The current whose magnitude changes continuously within certain limits direction reverses periodically is an
alternating current.

Mathematically, a.c. is given by I  I 0 sin t

Where, I0 is the max. magnitude of current (=peak value of current and wt in the phase.)

I= d.c.
S

 +

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t wt I=I0 sin wt
I 0 0 0
I 0  2A say
3T T  +I0
4 4 2
T T  0
T T 2
0
 I 0  2A 4 2 3 3  I0
t 4 2
T 2 0

 The portion of graph above the time axis indicates the current in one direction while the portion
of graph below the time axis shows the current in opposite direction.

Rectifier:

It is an electronic device used to convert AC into DC.

Rectification:

Rectification is a process of converting alternating form of electricity to the direct form.

 Diodes are used in rectifiers.

(a) Half wave rectifier:
A rectifier which converts half of each AC cycle (and rest half is ignored) DC, is called a half wave
rectifier.

Circuit diagram:

Principle:

A PN diode allows current in it when forward biased and is defunct when reverse biased.

Operation:

For the positive half cycle of the source point, ‘a’ is +ve, making the point a1 as +ve as a result the diode is
forward biased. So it sends current in the load RL, in a direction marked by an arrow.

For the next negative half cycle ‘a’ is –ve, making a1 as –ve as a result the diode is reverse biased.

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Therefore, being defunct cuts off current flow in the load. In this way, the load gets current in every positive
half cycle.

power output
Efficiency of the rectifier,  
power input

Pout

Pin


Pout I2  R L
 2 dc  2 0

I 2 π 2 .R L
 
Pin I rms R f  R L  I0 4 R f  R L .
4 1

π  Rf
2

  1
 RL 
4 Rf
  2 as  1
 RL

  0.406
 is 40.6%

Ripple Faction   :

Ripple factor of a rectifier is a measure of its ability to convert A.C to D.C.

For a half wave rectifier,  =1.21, i.e., 121% deficient. So this rectifier is not used in practice.

Q. why a half wave rectifier is not useful?

Ans. Efficiency of a half wave rectifier is small,  =0.406. Further  =1.21

Therefore, it is not in use

Full wave rectifier:

A rectifier which converts all the AC cycles (both +ve and –ve half cycles) into DC is a full wave rectifier.

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ELECTRONICS
Circuit diagram:
Diode-1
a a1

X Y
D-1
Load RL
 ( ) 0

 ( ) Diode

b b1
D-2
Principle:

A pn-diode allows current only when it is forwardly biased.

Construction:

It consists of two pn-diodes (centre tapped rectifier) D1 and D2 connected to the secondary of a stepdown
transformer.

A load RL is connected in the output. The diagram shows the circuit of a full wave rectifier.

Operator/Working:

For a positive half cycle (of the source) ‘a’ is +ve (so that ‘b’ is –ve) making diode, D-1 forward biased, as a
result it allows current to flow in the load in a direction shown by arrow-x at the same time the diode, D-2
being reverse biased is defuct. For the negative half cycle (of the source) ‘a’ is –ve (so that ‘b’ is +ve)
making diode, D-1 reverse biased and hence defunct. Due to the diode D-2, a current is sent, though the load
in the same direction marked by arrow-y. In this manner, all the full cycles of AC is made DC in the load.

Vinput + ve +ve

-ve -ve

t
(Input Character)

Ioutput D1 D2 D1 D2

Time
(Output character)

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ELECTRONICS
Ripple Factor:  
I a .c
Ripple factor,   
I d .c
   0.484
Pout Pdc
Efficiency  
Pin Pac
I dc2  RL
 2
I rim RF  RL 
2I 0
Considering full cycle of a.c. I dc 

I0
And I rms 
2
 4 I 02 
 2  RL
 
So,   2
 I0 
 RF  RL 
 2
8  RL 
  
 2  RF  RL 
 
 
8  1 
 2
  1  RF 
 RL 

8
 ~_ 2

RF
as  1
RL
   0.812
Transistor:
A junction transistor is a three terminal solid state device obtained by growing either a narrow section of P-
type crystal between two relatively larger sections of N-type crystals or a narrow section a N-type crystal
between two larger sections of P-type crystals.

N N-P-N
P Transistor
N

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ELECTRONICS
Transistor Action (Working of a transistor):

The emitter junction is forward biased and the collector junction is reverse biased. The charge carriers (free
electrons) are emitted from the emitter and the collector is to receive majority of them.

Electrons from emitter are pushed forward by the biasing battery and majority of these electrons arrive at the
collector. A few of them are captured by the holes in the P-region of the base. The electrons arriving at the
collector are sent back to the emitter via the external circuit with the help of biasing batteries/ biasing
sources. To create the no. of holes, (as many as neutralized by the electrons from the emitter) the same no. of
electrons are dragged out of some co-valent bonds in the base p-region and they are sent back to the emitter
via the external circuit. Therefore, currents of different strength viz., Ic, Ie and Ib are conducted in the
external circuits due to the movements of electrons.

Three different transistor configurations:

1. Common base transistor configuration:

Ie IC
E C
N-P-N
Vi=input B RL Output
=V
+ve
Ib
VBB VCC
-ve

2. Common emitter transistor configuration:

IC Collector IC

N C base
RL V0 RL V0
P B
Ib Ib
N E
Vi=input Vi=input Emitter
Ie VCC Ie VCC
VBB VBB

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ELECTRONICS
3. Common collector transistor configuration:
Ie
Emitter

N E
RL V0 base V0
P B
Ib RL
N C Ib
Vi RL
Vi Collector
IC VCC IC VCC
VBB
VBB

Current Amplification Factor:

1. Common base current amplification factor /a.c. current gain   :

The current amplification factor in a common base transistor is defined as the ratio of small change in
collector current to the small change in emitter current when the collector-base voltage is kept constant.

 ΔI 
α   C 
 ΔI e  V Constant

Value of α is about 0.95-0.99

α <1

2. Common emitter current amplification factor   :

(a.c. current gain in common emitter transistor)

The current amplification factor in a common emitter transistor is defined as the ratio of small change in
collector current to the small change in base current when the collector-emitter voltage is kept constant.

 ΔI 
   C 
 ΔI b  V CE  constant

Value of  is about 20-100.

In practice, common emitter transistor is used for making good current gain.

2. For common collector transistor configuration, the a.c. current gain   is given by

 ΔI 
   e 
 ΔI b  V CE  Constant

Relationship between  & 

As a principle, I e  I C  I b

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ELECTRONICS
 I e  I c  I b
I e I c I b
  
I c I c I C
1 1
  1
 
 1
1
 
 

  .....(a )
1 

Similarly,   .....(b)
1

Input characteristic (common emitter):

A graph shaving the variation in base current with base-emitter voltage (Veb) when the collector-emitter
voltage is kept constant, is called input characteristic curve.

VCE = 4 volt
120
VCE = 10 volt
Ib in μA 100
80
60
40
20

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2

Veb in volt

Input Resistance (ri):

 V 
ri   eb 
 I b  VCE constant
Input resistance ri of a transistor in CE configuration is defined as the change in base-emitter voltage to the
corresponding charge in base current when the collector emitter voltage is kept constant.
It is measured in ohm.

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ELECTRONICS
Output characteristic curve:

A curve showing the variation of collector current (IC) with the collector-emitter voltage (VCE) at a constant
base current is called output characteristic curve.
60 μA
1.5 50 μA
1.25 40 μA
IC in mA 1.0
30 μA
0.75
20 μA
0.50
Ib=10
0.25
μA

0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5

VCE in volt
Q. Define output resistance.

Output resistance (r0) of a common emitter transistor is defined as the ratio of charge in output voltage
IC  , keeping the base current VCE  to the change in output current (Ib) constant.

 V 
r0   CE 
 I C  IB constant

This resistance is measured in ohm.

Transfer characteristic (In case of common emitter transistor):

It is a graph showing the variation of collector current with the base current at a constant collector-emitter
voltage (VCE).

20
IC in mA 15
VCE=constant
10
10
5

0 100 200 300 400

Ib in μA

Q. What does the slope of the transfer characteristic curve give?

Slope of the transfer characteristic

 AI 
  C 
 AI b  VCE constant

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ELECTRONICS
 I 
Here  C   
 I b  VCE

= Current amplification factor in common emitter configuration.

Note: Sloe of this represents current amplification factor/ ac current gain.

Transistor as amplifier:

An amplifier is a circuit consisting of transistor (S) which is used to increase current, voltage or power of
alternating form, without disturbing the quality of the input signal.

Block Diagram:

Vi=input
V0
RL V0=output
t t
Amplifier

Circuit Diagram:

I C
mA
 Ib
RL
A VCE
Vi V0

VEB I e VCC
VBB

Ans. As amplifier using an NPN common emitter transistor is shown in the diagram. The input is forwardly
bias by the battery VBB producing a base-emitter potential VEB.

By superimposing the input voltage Vi on VEB the input current changes as I b . This value of changing
current is fed to the transistor as a result (due to transistor action) produces a larger current I C   I b  .

This larger current I C  plays in the load. The output is collected between the emitter and the ground, i.e.,
 0  VCC  I CRL .

Important Note:

In a common emitter transistor, the output voltage/ current is opposite in phase the input signal, i.e., the
output is out of phase to the input (the output is at 180o phase difference). This is called phase reversal.

Current gain:

The current gain of the transistor is defined as the ratio of small change in collector current I C  with the
small change in base current I b  when the collector-emitter voltage is kept constant.

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ELECTRONICS
 I 
   C 
 I b V CE


Ai

Voltage gain (AV):

The voltage gain of an amplifier is defined as ratio of small charge in the output voltage VCE  to the small
change in input voltage VBE  .

VCE
AV 
i.e., VBE

The negative sign is justified for the phase reversal

 r0  I C
AV 
r0  I b
 AV  Ar  Ai

Where, Ar= resistance gain and Ai= current gain.

Power gain (AP):

Power gain of an amplifier is defined as the ratio of the small change in output power to the corresponding
small change in input power.

Pout I C  r0
2
AP    AI2  Ar
Pin I b  ri
2

Q. For a transistor connected in a common emitter mode the voltage drop across the collector is 2V
and  is 50 find the base current if RC is 2 KΩ.

Ans. VCE=2V

β = 50

RC=2KΩ=200Ω

VCE 2
IC    10 3 A
RC 2000
IC 10 3
  50 
Ib Ib
10 3
 Ib   0.2  10 4 A
50
 20  10 6 A
 20 uA

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ELECTRONICS
Q. The current gain for CE amplifier is 59. If the emitter current is 6 m A. find the base current &
collector current.

 59
Ans :-   
1  60

Ic 59 Ic
  
I 60 6  10 3
 I c  5.9  10 3 A  5.9mA
Ic 5.9  10 3
Ib    10 4 A  0.1mA
 59

Q. The input resistance of a transistor is 1000 Ω. On changing the base current by 10 m A, the collector
current increases by 2 m A. If the load resistance is 5 k Ω. Calculate current gain & voltage gain.

Ic 2  103
Ai   6
 0.2  103  200
I b 10  10

Rl 5000
Av  β  Ar  200   200   1000
ri 1000

Q. A transistor has current gain, β=30, ro = 6 k Ω, ri =1 k Ω , voltage gain?

ro
Ans:- Av   β  6  30  180
ri

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ELECTRONICS
ANALOG SIGNAL

The signal which varies continuously with time is an analog signal.

Analog signal is represent by sinusoidal wave.

V0

V0

Alternating potential or alternating current is taken as analog signal.

Note:-

A circuit which processes analog signals is called analog circuit.

Digital circuit:-

 A signal in the form of potential or current which takes discrete value is a digital signal. It has only
two values – high (1) or low (0).
 Digital signal are represent by square waves.

5volt Leve -1 (High)

v
Leve - 0 (High)

0 volt

Q. What is logic gate?

Ans. A gate is a digital circuit designed for performing a particular logical operation. As it works according
to some logical relationship between input and output voltages it is generally known as logic gates.
Following are important basic logic gates.

OR – gate

AND – gate

NOT – gate

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ELECTRONICS
OR-gate:

 It is a logic gate with two or more no. of inputs and only one output.
 It gives high output (1) if either one input is high otherwise the output is low.

Electrical circuit of OR– gate

A

+Ve -Ve

 When the switch A is off (A=O) and the switch B is off (B=O), no current into the bulb, i.e., Y=0.
 When only the switch A is on (A=(A=1), the current is sent to the bulb (Y=1).
 So also if only the switch B is on (B=
(B=1), the current is sent to the bulb (Y=1).
 When both the switches are on (A=(A=1 &B=1), ), the current is sent to the bulb(i.e.,Y=1)
bulb(i.e.,Y=

Truth table
A B Y
off/open
0 0 0
1 0 1 Current break = infinite resistance
0 1 1
1 1 1

Boolean expression:-
Y= A+B i.e., Y is A or B

Electronic circuit:-
D1

S A
+ Y
E B

D2

S= Source
E= Earth

 When both A & B are connected to E, diodes do not get any source, i.e., diodes do not get any power
ass a result the output Y is low, i.e., A = 0, B= 0  Y= 0
 When A is connected ed to S (A = 1), diode – D1 is forwardly biased and hence sends current in R;
i.e., Y= 1. But B being connected to E (B= 0), it is defunct.
 Similarly connecting B to S and A to E, there is current in R due to diode – [Link], A= 0, B= 1 
Y= 1
 Further, When both A & B are connected to S( A=1& B=1) there is current in R(Y=1).

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A B Y
0 0 0
1 0 1
0 1 1
1 1 1

Schematic diagram (symbol) of OR –gate

Truth table
A B Y=A+B
0 0 0
Y 1 0 1
0 1 1
1 1 1

Q. Sketch the output wave form of an OR –gate

gate using the given input wave forms.

t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 t7 t8 t9 t10
Level -1
1

Input were A Level-0

0
form B Level -1
1

Level-0
0
Output Y
wave form

AND – gate

An AND – gate can have two or more no. of inputs but only one output.

It gives a high output (Y=1) if all inputs are high ((A=1, B=1) otherwise the output is low.

Electrical circuit of AND – gate:-

A B

 If both the switch A and B are off ((A=0, B=0) no current is sent to the bulb (Y=0).
 If only A is on (A=1) and B is off (B=0) no current in the bulb (Y=0).
 If only B is on (B=1) and A is off (A=0) no current in the bulb (Y=0).

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ELECTRONICS
 If both the switches are on (A=1& B=1), a current is sent to the bulb, i.e., Y=1.

A B Y Note:- The output is always low

excepting all the inputs are high.
0 0 0
1 0 0
0 1 0
1 1 1

Boolean Expression

Y=A.B A and B is Y

Electronic circuit
D1

S A
5V A B Y
E B
0 0 0
y 1 0 0
E-Earth D2 5V 0 1 0
S-Source R 1 1 1

Symbol of AND – gate

(Schematic diagram)

A
Y= A.B
B

Q. Sketch the output wave form of an AND – gate using the given input wave forms.
t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 t7 t8

Level-1
Input wave A Level-0
Forms Level-1
B Level-1

Output
waveform Y

NOT-gate

It is a simplest gate with only one input and one output. The output of α NOT–gate high (=1) when the input
is low and vice – versa.
Whatever, the input NOT-gate inverts it. So it is an inverter.

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ELECTRONICS
Boolean expression:

YA

Input (A).

Logic symbol/ schematic diagram of NOT- gate

A Y

Electrical circuit:
Y

 When A is on (A=1) current does not flow in the bulb (Y=0).

 When A is off (A=0) current conducts in the bulb (Y=1)

Truth table

A YA
1 0
0 1

Electronic circuit

5V
RC

C
Rb Y
S N
5V E B P
N
E

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ELECTRONICS
Q. Sketch the output wave form of a NOT-gate using the given input wave forms.

Input wave
form A
Output wave Y
form

NAND-gate

A NAND-gate is a combination of an AND–gate and a NOT-gate.

The output of AND-gate is connected to the input of the NOT-gate.

Symbol

A A
Y
Y B
B
NAND-gate
AND-gate NOT-gate

NAND-gate

Electronic circuit

Boolean expression

Y=AB

Truth table

A B Y=AB
0 0 1
1 0 1
0 1 1
1 1 0

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ELECTRONICS
Q. Sketch the output wave form of NAND-gate using the given input wave forms.

Q. Identify the logic gate given in the diagram.

Ans:- This is a NOT- gate form NAND –gate. Because it has one input and also output is the negation of its
input.

Truth table of 3 inputs AND-gate:

A B C Y
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
1 1 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 1 1
Q. Identify the logic gate given in the diagram.

 This is an AND-gate.

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ELECTRONICS
NOR- gate

 A NOR-gate is a combination of an OR –gate and a NOT- gate.

 The output of the OR- gate is connected to the input of the NOT-gate.
 The output of a NOR –gate is always low excepting when all the inputs are low.

Symbol:

A
Y
B Y
OR- gate NOT- gate

Elctronic circuit

Boolean Expression:

Y = A+B

Truth table

A B Y = A+B

0 0 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
1 1 0

Q. Draw the output wave form of a NOR- gate using the given input wave forms.

t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 t7 t8
Level-1
Level-0
Input wave A Level-1
forms B Level-0
Y
Output wave
form

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ELECTRONICS
Q. Identify the gate shown in the diagram.

This is a NOT- gate from NOR-gate because it has one input and also the output is the negation of its input.

Q. Identify the gate shown in diagram.

The combination is an OR-gate.

Q. Write the truth table of the circuit given below.

A A B A1 B1 Y
1
A
Y 0 0 1 1 0
1
B 1 0 0 1 0
B
0 1 1 0 0
1 1 0 0 1
This combination represents an AND-gate.

Q. Name the gate represented by the combination and write down the truth table.

A B A1 B1 Y
A
A1 0 0 1 1 0
Y
B1 1 0 0 1 1
B
0 1 1 0 1

1 1 0 0 1
This is an OR-gate.

Q. Express by a truth table the output Y for all possible inputs A&B.

A A B A1 B1 Y
1
A
B1 Y 0 0 0 0 0

B 1 0 1 0 1

0 1 0 0 0

1 1 1 1 1

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The XOR- gate

The XOR- gate can be obtained by combination of OR, AND and NOT gates as shown in the figure

 Boolean expression: Y  AB  AB  A  B
 The logic symbol of XOR gate in shown in the figure.

Truth Table:

A B Y
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

Q. Identify the logic gate obtained from the combination of the gates shown in the figure.

A B Y1 A1 B1 Y
0 0 1 1 1 0
1 0 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 1 0 1
1 1 0 1 1 0

Ans. This combination gives a XOR-gate/ exclusive OR-gate.

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ELECTRONICS
Q. Sketch the output wave form of the above combination of gates using the given input wave forms.

Level -1

Level -0

Input wave form Level-1

Level-0

Output wave form

Note:- NOR and NAND gates are called universal gates as any gate circuit can be made using either NOR
gates or NAND gates.

Rules:- 0 1 A+A=A
A .B=A+B
10 AAA
A0  A A.A  A A+B=A.B
A 1  1 A.A  0
A.1  A A  AB  A(1  B)  A

*** THE END ***

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