CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE (RRL) – Guiding Notes

Purpose of this Section

The Review of Related Literature (RRL) demonstrates that your plumbing project is grounded in
existing knowledge, research, and industry standards. It shows you have investigated reliable
sources and aligned your work with current practices, regulations, and technological trends.
The RRL provides the theoretical and practical background for your project, proving its
importance, feasibility, and compliance with professional standards.

Why It’s Important

1. Credibility – Proves your work is based on factual, verified information rather than
assumptions.
2. Context – Situates your project within the larger field of plumbing, sanitation, and water
management.
3. Problem-Solving – Identifies existing gaps or inefficiencies your project aims to solve.
4. Standards Compliance – Ensures alignment with plumbing codes, environmental
regulations, and industry best practices.

What to Include in This Section?

1. General Context

• Explain the role of plumbing systems in modern society, emphasizing their contribution
to sanitation, public health, and water conservation.
• Highlight the importance of water closets and shower systems in enhancing comfort,
hygiene, and quality of life.
• Discuss efficient water management, especially in areas experiencing:
o Water scarcity (limited supply)
o High utility costs
o Environmental sustainability concerns

2. Existing Studies and Theories

• Summarize recent research (preferably from 2021–2024) on:

o Modern plumbing technologies
o Low-flow water fixtures
o Water-saving shower systems
o Eco-friendly waste disposal methods

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 • Include findings from Google Scholar or other credible databases, ensuring APA-style
citations (no links).
• Highlight innovations and trends, such as sensor-activated flushing, greywater
recycling, and dual-flush cisterns.

3. Standards and Regulations

• Discuss national and international plumbing codes (e.g., Kenya Standards, IPC,
UPC) that guide safe installation.
• Mention environmental policies promoting water efficiency.
• Explain how your project aligns with these guidelines.

4. Gaps in Current Knowledge or Practice

• Point out limitations of current plumbing installations, such as:

o High water consumption
o Outdated fixtures
o Poor maintenance practices
• Show how your project addresses these gaps through innovation, efficiency, and cost-
effectiveness.

5. Relevance to Your Project

• Directly connect reviewed literature to your water closet and shower system
installation project.

1. Purpose of the RRL

The RRL provides the research foundation for your plumbing project. It demonstrates that your
work is informed by credible sources, addresses real needs, and complies with current industry
standards and trends.

2. Structure of the RRL

A. General Context

What to Include:

• The importance of plumbing systems in sanitation, hygiene, and water management.

• The role of water closets (WCs) and showers in improving comfort, preventing disease,
and supporting public health.
• Why water efficiency is crucial, especially in areas with high utility costs or water
scarcity.

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Example:

Plumbing systems are the backbone of modern sanitation, ensuring the delivery of clean water
and the safe disposal of wastewater in residential, commercial, and institutional buildings. Water
closets (WCs) and showers are essential fixtures that promote personal hygiene, prevent disease,
and enhance user comfort. Efficient water management in plumbing systems is increasingly vital
due to rising water costs and environmental concerns, particularly in urban areas where water
demand is high (Smith, 2023).

Explanation: Introduces the broad importance of plumbing while linking to water efficiency, a
major theme in modern installations.

B. Problems or Issues Being Addressed

What to Include:

• Outdated plumbing designs and high-flow fixtures.

• Water wastage, leakages, and maintenance issues.
• Negative impacts such as higher bills, hygiene risks, and inefficiency.
• How these challenges relate to your project goals.

Example:

Many older buildings, including schools and public facilities, rely on outdated plumbing systems
that use high-flow fixtures, resulting in excessive water wastage. For instance, traditional flush
valves in WCs can consume up to 13 liters per flush, compared to modern dual-flush systems
that use 3–6 liters (Kenya Water Institute, 2022). Additionally, poor-quality installations often
lead to frequent leaks, increasing maintenance costs and compromising hygiene. This project
addresses these inefficiencies by incorporating water-saving fixtures and durable materials to
reduce water use and maintenance needs.

Explanation: Uses data to define the problem clearly and connects it directly to the project’s
solutions.

C. Current Trends or Developments

What to Include:

• Eco-friendly fixtures like low-flow showerheads and dual-flush toilets.

• Modern plumbing materials (PPR, CPVC) and their benefits.
• Smart technologies (IoT water meters, leak detection).

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Example:

The plumbing industry is embracing sustainability through innovations like low-flow

showerheads, which reduce water usage by up to 50% compared to traditional models (Green
Building Council, 2024). Dual-flush water closets allow users to select a low-volume flush for
liquid waste, saving significant amounts of water. Additionally, materials like Polypropylene
Random Copolymer (PPR) pipes are gaining popularity due to their corrosion resistance and
recyclability. Smart systems, such as IoT-enabled water meters, enable real-time monitoring of
water usage, helping to detect leaks early (Johnson & Lee, 2025).

Explanation: Shows awareness of modern, sustainable, and technology-driven solutions.

D. Relevant Standards and Codes

What to Include:

• Local and international plumbing regulations (KEBS, WASREB, Kenya National

Building Code, WHO).
• Safety requirements (non-slip floors, cubicle size, ventilation).
• Water efficiency guidelines.

Example:

This project adheres to the Kenya National Building Code (2024), which mandates that WC
cubicles measure at least 1.5 × 0.75 meters and include non-slip, waterproof flooring to ensure
safety and accessibility. Additionally, KEBS standards (KS ISO 305) for vitreous china WCs
ensure durability and hygiene, while WASREB guidelines emphasize water efficiency in fixture
selection (WASREB, 2023).

Explanation: Citing standards proves the project is compliant, safe, and legally sound.

E. Past Studies and Projects

What to Include:

• Similar projects (especially in schools, institutions, or public buildings).

• Key achievements and challenges.
• Lessons learned that apply to your project.

Example:

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A 2023 plumbing upgrade at Thika Technical College replaced outdated high-flow WCs with
dual-flush models, reducing water consumption by 30% (Thika Technical College, 2023). The
project also separated supply and waste piping to prevent contamination, a practice adopted in
this project. However, the Thika project faced challenges with sourcing affordable PPR pipes, a
lesson that informed our decision to secure materials from verified local suppliers.

Explanation: Helps build on proven strategies while avoiding known pitfalls.

F. Link to Your Project

What to Include:

• How the literature informs your project design and decisions.

• How your project addresses identified gaps.
• How it serves as a model or demonstration.

Example:

Drawing on these insights, this project integrates dual-flush WCs and low-flow showerheads to
address water wastage, aligning with global sustainability trends. By adhering to KEBS and
WASREB standards, the installation ensures safety, durability, and compliance. The project
serves as a training model for plumbing students, demonstrating the application of modern
techniques and materials in a real-world setting.

3. Tips for Writing the RRL

• Cite in APA style: (Author, Year) for all sources, including codes and reports.
• Use 5–10 credible sources from 2021–2024, preferably from Google Scholar or
reputable institutions.
• Arrange logically: context → problems → trends → standards → past projects →
link to project.
• Keep each subsection clear, evidence-based, and concise.

2.1 MATERIALS

Purpose of this Section

This section outlines all materials used in your plumbing project, detailing their specifications,
purpose, and selection rationale. It shows that your choices are informed by technical
suitability, compliance with standards, and cost-effectiveness.

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Why It’s Important

1. Transparency – Documents all materials clearly for reference and accountability.

2. Justification – Shows that materials were selected based on functionality, quality, and
project requirements.
3. Replicability – Enables others to reproduce or adapt the project effectively.

What to Include for Each Material

For every material used, provide:

1. Material Name – e.g., PPR-C Pipe, Vitreous China WC Pan.

2. Specification – e.g., PN-20, 25 mm diameter, KS ISO standard.
3. Purpose – Where and how it’s used in the project.
4. Reason for Selection – Durability, cost, availability, ease of installation, eco-
friendliness, or compliance with standards.

Example Table – Materials Used

Material
Specification Purpose Reason for Selection
Name

PN-20, 25 mm Cold water supply Corrosion-resistant, withstands

PPR-C Pipe
diameter to shower high pressure, long lifespan

PVC Waste 50 mm diameter, KS Drainage from WC Lightweight, easy to install, cost-

Pipe ISO standard and shower effective

Vitreous China Durable, hygienic, easy to clean,

KS ISO 305 Sanitation fixture
WC Pan long service life

Stainless Steel Water control for

½ inch, Chrome finish Rust-resistant, aesthetic, durable
Tap shower

Saves water, compliant with

Dual-Flush 3/6 litre capacity, KS WC flushing
WASREB water efficiency
Cistern ISO standard mechanism
guidelines

PTFE Thread 12 mm width, high- Sealing threaded Prevents leaks, inexpensive, widely
Seal Tape density pipe joints available

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Explanation of Examples

• PPR-C Pipe – Suitable for supply lines due to high pressure resistance and non-corrosive
nature.
• PVC Waste Pipe – Affordable, lightweight, and quick to install for drainage systems.
• Vitreous China WC Pan – Hygienic, stain-resistant, and durable for long-term use.
• Dual-Flush Cistern – Reduces water consumption while maintaining flushing efficiency.

Additional Guidance

• List all major materials including pipes, fixtures, fittings, sealants, and accessories.
• Reference standards (e.g., KS ISO, BS) to show compliance.
• If materials are eco-friendly or innovative, highlight this to align with sustainability
trends.

2.2 TOOLS & EQUIPMENT

Purpose of this Section

This section lists all tools and equipment used during the installation, testing, and maintenance
stages of the project. It ensures clarity on resources required for similar works and
demonstrates proper planning.

Why It’s Important

1. Planning – Ensures all tools are available before project execution.

2. Training – Helps others learn proper tool selection for specific plumbing tasks.
3. Efficiency – Minimizes delays by identifying essential equipment.

What to Include for Each Tool/Equipment

• Tool/Equipment Name – e.g., Adjustable Spanner, Pipe Wrench.

• Specification – Size, model, or capacity.
• Purpose – Specific task it performs.
• Reason for Use – Why it is suitable for the job.

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Example Table – Tools & Equipment Used

Tool/Equipment
Specification Purpose Reason for Use
Name

Tightening and loosening Versatile, adjustable to

Adjustable Spanner 200 mm length
various nut sizes different fittings

Strong grip, suitable for

Pipe Wrench 18-inch Gripping and turning pipes
large-diameter pipes

Cutting metal and plastic

Hacksaw 300 mm blade Clean cuts, portable
pipes

Precise cutting of PPR and Smooth finish, reduces

Pipe Cutter 22 mm capacity
copper pipes wastage

Ensuring level and plumb Improves accuracy and

Spirit Level 600 mm length
installations aesthetics

500W, variable Drilling holes for mounting

Electric Drill Efficient, precise
speed fixtures

Plumber’s Plunger Standard size Clearing blockages Simple, effective

2.3.1 LABOUR COST

Purpose
To record labor expenses, specifying number of workers, skill levels, rates, and tasks
performed.

What to Include

• Labor Type – Skilled plumber, helper, etc.

• No. of Workers – Total personnel.
• Daily Rate (KES) – Pay per day.
• Days Worked – Duration for each role.
• Total (KES) – No. of Workers × Daily Rate × Days.
• Tasks – Brief task list to justify cost.

Example Table – Labour Costs

Labour Type No. of Workers Daily Rate (KES) Days Total (KES)

Skilled Plumber 1 2,800 3 8,400

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 Labour Type No. of Workers Daily Rate (KES) Days Total (KES)

Helper 1 1,200 3 3,600

Total 12,000

Tasks Covered: Pipe threading, fixture installation, leak testing, and commissioning.

Explanation

• Skilled and unskilled labour are separated to reflect pay differences.

• Task list justifies labour requirements and duration.

Additional Guidance

• Use local industry rates.

• Document any specialist labour (e.g., electrician for water heater).

2.3.2 TRANSPORT COST

Purpose
To account for material delivery and related logistics costs.

What to Include

• Description – Vehicle hire, loading/unloading, fuel.

• Cost (KES) – Individual amounts for each activity.
• Total – Sum of all transport expenses.

Example Table – Transport Costs

Description Cost (KES)

Vehicle Hire 2,000

Loading/Unloading 500

Total 2,500

Explanation

• Covers all delivery and handling expenses.

• Figures are realistic for small-scale projects in 2025.

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Additional Guidance

• Include fuel costs if applicable.

• Note if local sourcing reduced transport cost.

2.3.3 SUMMARY OF COSTS

Purpose
To combine all expenses into one table, providing a clear overview of the project budget.

Example Table – Summary of Costs

Cost Category Amount (KES)

Materials 12,595

Labor 12,000

Transport 2,500

Grand Total 27,095

Explanation

• Allows quick review of total project cost.

• Assists in budget approval and reporting.

Additional Guidance

• Double-check calculations for accuracy.

• Mention cost-saving measures if any (e.g., bulk purchases, local suppliers).

SAMPLE

Review of Related Literature, Materials, Tools & Equipment, and Cost Analysis

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2.0 Review of Related Literature

Sanitation infrastructure in Kenyan institutions is a critical area for improvement and innovation.
Although national coverage of improved sanitation is around 30–50%, many existing school and
college facilities remain under-developed (World Health Organization / JMP, 2015; WASREB,
2022). Failures in planning, maintenance, and community involvement often result in non-
functional installations shortly after commissioning (Langat, 2019).

Research focused on Kenyan schools highlights hygiene risk factors such as overcrowded toilet
facilities, poorly maintained WASH infrastructure, and inconsistent water supply (Mutua &
Runguma, 2024). Similarly, studies on WASH-friendly school designs stress that stakeholder
involvement, ease of use, and reliability are essential for sustainable systems (Smith et al., 2025).

Technological trends indicate the emergence of low-cost, IoT-enabled smart showers that can
control flow, detect falls, and regulate temperature for efficiency and safety (Hossain & Abdel
Gawad, 2023). While such systems are not yet common in Kenyan TVET institutions like ICS
College Thika, they represent a future direction for sustainable and efficient plumbing designs.

In addition, the Kenya National Building Code (Kenya Law, 2024) requires specific sanitary
provisions, including water closets with a minimum cubicle size of 1.5 × 0.75 m, non-slip
waterproof flooring, adequate ventilation, and proper circulation space. The Samwel Thika
Plumbing Trade Project (2023) demonstrates the application of these standards in a local
educational setting, providing a model for similar installations.

2.1 Materials

The installation at ICS College Thika requires compliance with Kenyan standards and practical
durability. The recommended materials include:

• Vitreous-China water closet pan & seat, meeting KS-ISO standards.

• PPR-C piping, PN-20 rated: 20 mm for hand basin cold supply; 25 mm for shower; 50–
75 mm for soil-stack/waste drainage.
• Shower floor/tray: reinforced concrete screed or prefabricated ceramic tray,
waterproofed and finished with anti-slip tiles.
• Fittings: brass or CPVC elbows, tees, stop-taps, and gate valves conforming to BS
standards.
• Sealants/jointing materials: PTFE tape, thread‐lubricant, polymeric grout, and
waterproof mortar.
• Accessories: wash basin with mixer tap, gully trap, bottle trap, ventilation pipe and roof
vent, pipe clips and supports.

2.2 Tools & Equipment

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The following tools and equipment are essential for proper installation:

• Pipe wrench, pipe cutter, hacksaw

• Pipe threading tools (die heads), bench vice, taps, and punches
• Files, screwdrivers, drill with masonry bits
• Pipe bender, PPR fusion welding machine
• Ball hammer, mallet, masonry chisel
• Safety gear: gloves, safety boots, dustcoat/overall, hardhat
• Pipe supports, sandpaper, thread tape, threading oil, caulking tools

2.3 Cost Involved

2.3.0 Material Cost

Unit Cost Total

Item Description Specification Quantity
(KES) (KES)
Water closet set (pan, seat, Vitreous china, KS ISO
1 8,000 8,000
cistern) 305
Wash hand basin with mixer tap Porcelain, wall-hung 1 3,000 3,000
PN-20, 20–75 mm
PPR-C piping Lumpsum 5,500 5,500
diameter
PPR fittings (tees, elbows,
Brass/CPVC Lumpsum 1,500 1,500
unions, reducers)
Shower tray/floor Anti-slip tiles & concrete
~3 m² 1,000 3,000
waterproofing screed
Gully trap & bottle trap PVC/brass 2 800 1,600
Vent pipe & cowl uPVC, 50 mm 1 1,000 1,000
PTFE tape, thread sealant,
Jointing materials Lumpsum 1,200 1,200
grout
Pipe clips, supports,
Ancillary hardware Lumpsum 1,000 1,000
screws, anchors
Subtotal 25,800
Contingency (10%) 2,580
Total Estimated Material
28,380
Cost

2.3.1 Labor Cost

Labor Type Number of Workers Daily Rate (KES) Days Total (KES)
Skilled plumber 1 2,800 3 8,400

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 Labor Type Number of Workers Daily Rate (KES) Days Total (KES)
Assistant plumber/helper 1 1,200 3 3,600
Total Labor Cost 12,000

Labor covers pipe cutting, jointing, installation of fixtures, waterproofing, and leak testing.
Skilled labor ensures compliance with the Kenya National Building Code and maximizes
system durability.

2.3.2 Transport Cost

Transport Component Estimated Cost (KES)

Vehicle hire/delivery fee 2,000
Loading/unloading & handling 500
Total Transport Cost 2,500

2.3.3 Summary of Costs

Cost Category Estimated Total (KES)

Materials 28,380
Labor 12,000
Transport 2,500
Grand Total 42,880

References (APA style)

Hossain, S., & Abdel Gawad, A. (2023). Low-cost architecture for an advanced smart shower

Langat, A. (2019). Failures of water supply and sanitation systems in Kenya: assessment and
context. Water supply and sanitation in Kenya [Wikipedia].

Mutua, N., & Runguma, A. (2024). Risk factors associated with sanitation and hygiene practices
in public secondary schools in Kenya. International Journal for Multidisciplinary Research,
6(4).

Smith, J., et al. (2025). WASH-friendly schools for whom? Integrating stakeholder perspectives.
Science of the Total Environment.

World Health Organization / JMP. (2015). Water supply and sanitation coverage statistics in
Kenya.

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WASREB. (2022). National sanitation coverage report.

Kenya Law. (2024). National Building Code, LN 47 of 2024. Government Printer.

Samwel Thika plumbing trade project. (2023). Design and installation of sanitary systems at
Thika Technical Training Institute. Scribd.

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