GEOGRAPHY FORM TWO WORK
PREPARED BY MR. OGOTI R.M
TOPIC ONE: INTERNAL LANDFORMING PROCESSES.
- They are also called endogenic or endogenetic processes.
- These are processes operating in the interior of the earth resulting in the formation of
landforms.
- They include folding, faulting and vulcanicity.
- Formation of landforms by internal land forming processes is determined by:
(i) Nature of rocks ie soft rocks are more elastic hence easily forms landforms
compared to hard/rigid rocks.
(ii) Age of rocks ie young rocks are elastic hence easily forms landforms compared
to old rocks.
(iii)Type of earth movement involved ie horizontal and vertical earth movement
forms different landforms.
(iv) The intensity and scale of the forces involved ie strong tectonic forces easily
forms different landforms compared to weak tectonic forces.
Earth Movements.
- Earth movements are displacement of the earth’s crustal rocks due to tectonic forces.
- Tectonic forces are forces which originate and operate in the interior of the earth.
- Tectonic forces include;
• Tensional forces
• Compressional forces
• Shear forces
• Gravitational forces
Types of Earth Movements –kcse 2007
a) Horizontal earth movement
b) Vertical earth movement
(a) Horizontal earth movements
- These movements are also known as lateral/orogenic earth movements.
- They are displacement of the earth’s crustal rocks along a horizontal plane due to tectonic
forces causing rocks to stretch, shorten or shear.
Causes of Horizontal Earth movements.
(i) Tensional forces which pull the crustal rocks apart causing stretching of the earth
crust.
(ii) Compressional forces which push crustal rocks towards each other making them to
be compressed/shorten.
(iii) Shear forces which operate in opposite directions. The forces are of unequal
strength, making the crustal rocks to slip along the shear plane or tear.
Effects of horizontal Earth movements
(i) They cause strain and stretching of crustal rocks due to tensional forces which
cause formation of cracks/faults.
(ii) They cause squeezing and shortening of crustal rocks due to compressional
forces which also cause formation of faults.
(iii)They cause crustal rocks to shear by slipping past each other or by dividing
into layers which is caused by shear forces.
Resultant features of Horizontal earth Movements.
✓ Faults
✓ Rift valleys
✓ Fold mountains
✓ Escarpments
✓ Basins
✓ Tilt blocks
✓ Block mountains
(b) Vertical earth movements
- These are also known as epeirogenic earth movements
- They are displacement of crustal rocks along the radius of the earth either towards the
earth surfaces or towards its center.
- They involve the upward or downward displacement of the crustal rocks.
Causes of vertical earth movements.
(i) Upwarping- movement of crustal rocks results in the uplift of the land ie
(ii) Downwarping- movement of crustal rocks results in the downlift of the land ie
(iii)Tilting- crustal rocks tilt if forces of unequal magnitude act on them ie
Effects of vertical earth movements.
(i) They cause subsiding/sinking/down warping or pulling of crustal rocks downwards.
(ii) They cause uplifting/upwarping or pushing of crustal rocks upwards.
(iii)They cause tilting of crustal rocks or shearing in vertical direction due to greater uplift
on one side.
Resultant features of vertical earth movements.
✓ Raised cliffs
✓ Tilt blocks
✓ Rift valleys
✓ Fault scarps/escarpments
✓ Plateaus
✓ Basins
Causes of Earth Movements –kcse 2012
1. Magma Movement within the earth’s crust-kcse 2017
- Molten rock (magma) is forced to intrude into the earth’s crust through a line of
weakness causing displacement.
- The crustal rocks are forced to move/give way to intruding magma as their place is taken
over by the intruding magma.
2. Convectional currents in the mantle.
- The high temperatures in the interior of the earth cause molten magma in the upper
mantle to develop strong convectional currents.
- The currents move laterally and vertically (in circular motion), exerting a frictional drag
on the crustal rocks causing them also to move.
3. Gravitative pressure/gravitational force.
- Large quantities of magma that escape from the upper mantle to the surface leave behind
large voids/hollows.
- Force of gravity then acts on the crustal rocks overlying the voids, exerting pressure on
the rocks.
- Eventually the overlying crustal rocks crumble inwards to fill up the voids/hollows
below, this leads to vertical displacement of rocks.
4. Isostatic adjustments.
- Isostasy is the state of equilibrium/balance that exits between the lighter continental
crust/Sial and the denser oceanic crust/sima.
Erosion of continental landmasses makes them thinner and lighter. The eroded materials are
deposited on the seabed making the oceanic