Mangalore
MANGALOREInstitute ofTECHNOLOGY
INSTITUTE OF Technology &ENGINEERING
AND Engineering
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
Electromagnetic Waves
121EC54
Academic Year 2023-24
Accredited by NAAC with A+ Grade, An ISO 9001: 2015 Certified Institution
(A Unit of Rajalaxmi Education Trust®, Mangalore - 575001)
Affiliated to V.T.U., Belagavi, Approved by AICTE, New Delhi
MANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING
Module 1
• Revision of Vector Calculus – (Text 1: Chapter 1)
• Coulomb’s Law, Electric Field Intensity and Flux density: Experimental law of
Coulomb, Electric field intensity, Field due to continuous volume charge distribution,
Field of a line charge, Field due to Sheet of charge, Electric flux density, Numerical
Problems. (Text: Chapter 2.1 to 2.5, 3.1)
Department of Mechanical Engineering
MANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING
Revision of Vector Calculus
Department of Mechanical Engineering
MANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING
What is Electromagnetics
Electric field
Produced by the presence of
electrically charged particles,
and gives rise to the electric
force.
Magnetic field
Produced by the motion of
electric charges, or electric
current, and gives rise to the
magnetic force associated
with magnets.
Department of Mechanical Engineering
MANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING
Electromagnetic Wave Spectrum
Department of Mechanical Engineering
MANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING
Why do we learn Engineering Electromagnetics
• Electric and magnetic field exist nearly everywhere.
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Engineering Electromagnetics
MANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING
Applications
Electromagnetic principles find application in various disciplines such
as microwaves, x-rays, antennas, electric machines, plasmas, etc.
Department of Mechanical Engineering
MANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING
Applications
Electromagnetic fields are used in induction heaters for melting, forging, annealing,
surface hardening, and soldering operation.
Electromagnetic devices include transformers, radio, television, mobile phones, radars,
lasers, etc.
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Engineering Electromagnetics
MANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING
Applications
• A magnetic traveling field moves the vehicle without contact.
• The speed can be continuously regulated by varying the frequency of the
alternating current.
Transrapid Train
Department of Mechanical Engineering
MANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING
Scalars and Vectors
Scalar refers to a quantity whose value may be represented by a single
(positive or negative) real number.
Some examples include distance, temperature, mass, density, pressure,
volume, and time.
A vector quantity has both a magnitude and a direction in space. We
especially concerned with two- and three-dimensional spaces only.
Displacement, velocity, acceleration, and force are examples of vectors.
• Scalar notation: A or A (italic or plain)
• Vector notation: A or A (bold or plain with arrow)
Department of Mechanical Engineering
MANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING
Vector Algebra
AB BA
A (B + C) ( A B) + C
A B A ( B )
A 1
A
n n
AB 0 A B
Department of Mechanical Engineering
MANGALORE INSTITUTE
Chapter 1 OF TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING
Vector Analysis
Rectangular Coordinate System
• Differential surface units:
dx dy
dy dz
dx dz
• Differential volume unit :
dx dy dz
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Chapter 1 Vector Analysis
MANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING
Vector Components and Unit Vectors
r xyz
r xa x ya y za z R PQ ?
a x , a y , a z : unit vectors
R PQ rQ rP
(2a x 2a y a z ) (1a x 2a y 3a z )
a x 4a y 2a z
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Chapter 1
MANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING
Vector Analysis
Vector Components and Unit Vectors
For any vector B, B Bxa x By a y + Bz a z :
B Bx2 By2 Bz2 B Magnitude of B
B B
aB
2 Unit vector in the direction of B
Bx2 By2 Bz B
Example
Given points M(–1,2,1) and N(3,–3,0), find RMN and aMN.
R MN (3a x 3a y 0a z ) (1a x 2a y 1a z ) 4a x 5a y a z
R MN 4a x 5a y 1a z
a MN 0.617a x 0.772a y 0.154a z
R MN 4 (5) (1) Department of Mechanical Engineering
2 2 2
MANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING
Chapter 1 Vector Analysis
The Dot Product
Given two vectors A and B, the dot product, or scalar product, is defined as the
product of the magnitude of A, the magnitude of B, and the cosine of the smaller
angle between them:
A B A B cos AB
The dot product is a scalar, and it obeys the commutative law:
A B BA
For any vector A Axa x Ay a y + Az a z and B Bxa x By a y + Bz a z ,
A B Ax Bx Ay By + Az Bz
Department of Mechanical Engineering
MANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING
Chapter 1
The Dot Product
One of the most important applications of the dot product is that of finding the component
of a vector in a given direction.
• The scalar component of B in the direction of the unit vector a is
Ba
• The vector component of B in the direction of the unit vector a is
(Ba)a
B a B a cos Department
Ba B of cos Ba Engineering
Mechanical
MANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING
Chapter 1
The Dot Product
Example
The three vertices of a triangle are located at A(6,–1,2), B(–2,3,–4), and C(–3,1,5).
Find: (a) RAB; (b) RAC; (c) the angle θBAC at vertex A; (d) the vector projection of RAB
on RAC.
R AB (2a x 3a y 4a z ) (6a x a y 2a z ) 8a x 4a y 6a z B
R AC (3a x 1a y 5a z ) (6a x a y 2a z ) 9a x 2a y 3a z
BAC
R AB R AC R AB R AC cos BAC C
A
R R (8a x 4a y 6a z ) (9a x 2a y 3a z ) 62
cos BAC AB AC 0.594
R AB R AC (8) (4) (6)
2 2 2
( 9) (2) (3)
2 2 2
116 94
BAC cos 1 (0.594) 53.56
Department of Mechanical Engineering
MANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING
Chapter 1
The Cross Product
Given two vectors A and B, the magnitude of the cross product, or vector
product, written as AB, is defined as the product of the magnitude of A, the
magnitude of B, and the sine of the smaller angle between them.
The direction of AB is perpendicular to the plane containing A and B and is in
the direction of advance of a right-handed screw as A is turned into B.
ax a y az
A B a N A B sin AB a y az ax
az ax a y
The cross product is a vector, and it is
not commutative:
(B A ) ( A B )
Department of Mechanical Engineering
MANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING
The Cross Product
Chapter 1 Vector Analysis
Example
Given A = 2ax–3ay+az and B = –4ax–2ay+5az, find AB.
A B ( Ay Bz Az By )a x ( Az Bx Ax Bz )a y ( Ax By Ay Bx )a z
(3)(5) (1)(2) a x (1)(4) (2)(5) a y (2)(2) (3)(4) a z
13a x 14a y 16a z
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Chapter 1 MANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING
Vector Analysis
The Cylindrical Coordinate System
• Differential surface units: • Relation between the
d dz rectangular and the cylindrical
coordinate systems
d dz
d d x cos x2 y 2
1 y
• Differential volume unit : y sin tan
x
d d dz
Department of Mechanical Engineering
zz zz
Chapter 1 Vector Analysis
MANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING
The Cylindrical Coordinate System
?
A Axa x Ay a y + Az a z A A a A a + Az a z
az az
A A a
( Axa x Ay a y + Az a z ) a
a
Ax a x a Ay a y a + Az a z a
ay Ax cos Ay sin
a
ax A A a
( Ax a x Ay a y + Az a z ) a
• Dot products of unit vectors in Axa x a Ay a y a + Az a z a
cylindrical and rectangular Ax sin Ay cos
coordinate systems
Az A a z
( Ax a x Ay a y + Az a z ) a z
Axa x a z Ay a y a z + Az a z a z
Az
Department of Mechanical Engineering
MANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING
The Spherical Coordinate System
Chapter 1
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Chapter 1 Vector Analysis
MANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING
The Spherical Coordinate System
• Differential surface units:
dr rd
dr r sin d
rd r sin d
• Differential volume unit :
Department of Mechanical Engineering dr rd r sin d
The Spherical Coordinate System
Chapter 1
MANGALORE Vector Analysis
INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING
Relation between the rectangular and the spherical coordinate systems
x r sin cos r x2 y 2 z 2 , r 0
z
y r sin sin cos 1 , 0 180
x y z
2 2 2
y
z r cos tan 1
x
• Dot products of unit vectors in spherical and
rectangular coordinate systems
Department of Mechanical Engineering
MANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING
Coulomb’s Law and Electric Field Intensity
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Chapter 2 Coulomb’s Law and Electric Field Intensity
MANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING
The Experimental Law of Coulomb
In 1600, Dr. Gilbert, a physician from England, published the first
major classification of electric and non-electric materials.
He stated that glass, sulfur, amber, and some other materials “not
only draw to themselves straw, and chaff, but all metals, wood,
leaves, stone, earths, even water and oil.”
In the following century, a French Army Engineer, Colonel Charles
Coulomb, performed an elaborate series of experiments using
devices invented by himself.
Coulomb could determine quantitatively the force exerted
between two objects, each having a static charge of electricity.
He wrote seven important treatises on electric and magnetism,
developed a theory of attraction and repulsion between bodies of
the opposite and the same electrical charge.
Department of Mechanical Engineering
MANGALORE
Chapter INSTITUTE OF
2 Coulomb’s Law andTECHNOLOGY
Electric Field IntensityAND ENGINEERING
The Experimental Law of Coulomb
Coulomb stated that the force between two very small objects separated in
vacuum or free space by a distance which is large compared to their size is
proportional to the charge on each and inversely proportional to the square of
the distance between them.
Q1Q2
F k 2
R
In SI Units, the quantities of charge Q are measured in coulombs (C), the
separation R in meters (m), and the force F should be newtons (N).
This will be achieved if the constant of proportionality k is written as:
1
k
4 0
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Chapter 2
MANGALORECoulomb’s
INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING
Law and Electric Field Intensity
The Experimental Law of Coulomb
The permittivity of free space ε is measured in farads per meter (F/m), and has
the magnitude of:
1
0 8.854 10 12
109 F m
36
The Coulomb’s law is now:
1 Q1Q2
F
4 0 R 2
The force F acts along the line joining the two charges. It is repulsive if the charges
are alike in sign and attractive if the are of opposite sign.
Department of Mechanical Engineering
MANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING
Chapter 2 Coulomb’s Law and Electric Field Intensity
The Experimental Law of Coulomb
R12 R12 r2 r1
a12
R12 R12 r2 r1
In vector form, Coulomb’s law is written as:
1 Q1Q2
F2 a12
4 0 R12
2
F2 is the force on Q2, for the case where Q1 and Q2 have the same sign, while
a12 is the unit vector in the direction of R12, the line segment from Q1 to Q2.
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Chapter 2 MANGALORE INSTITUTE OFandTECHNOLOGY
Coulomb’s Law Electric Field IntensityAND ENGINEERING
Electric Field Intensity
Let us consider one charge, say Q1, fixed in position in space.
Now, imagine that we can introduce a second charge, Qt, as a “unit test charge”,
that we can move around.
We know that there exists everywhere a force on this second charge ► This
second charge is displaying the existence of a force field.
The force on it is given by Coulomb’s law as:
1 Q1Qt
Ft a1t
4 0 R1t
2
Writing this force as a “force per unit charge” gives:
Ft 1 Q1
a Vector Field,
Qt 4 0 R1t
2 1t Electric Field Intensity
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Chapter 2
MANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING
Coulomb’s Law and Electric Field Intensity
Electric Field Intensity
We define the electric field intensity as the vector of force on a unit positive test
charge.
Electric field intensity, E, is measured by the unit newtons per coulomb (N/C) or
volts per meter (V/m).
Ft 1 Q1
E= a
Qt 4 0 R1t
2 1t
The field of a single point charge can be written as:
1 Q
E= a
4 0 R 2 R
aR is a unit vector in the direction from the point at which the point charge Q is
located, to the point at which E is desired/measured.
Department of Mechanical Engineering
MANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING
Chapter 2
Electric Field Intensity
For a charge which is not at the origin of the
coordinate, the electric field intensity is:
1 Q r r
E(r ) =
4 0 r r 2 r r
1 Q(r r)
=
4 0 r r 3
1 Q ( x x)a x ( y y)a y ( z z )a z
=
4 0 ( x x) 2 ( y y) 2 ( z z ) 2 3 2
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Chapter 2
MANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING
Coulomb’s Law and Electric Field Intensity
Electric Field Intensity
The electric field intensity due to two point charges, say Q1
at r1 and Q2 at r2, is the sum of the electric field intensity on
Qt caused by Q1 and Q2 acting alone (Superposition
Principle).
1 Q
E(r ) = a1
4 0 r r12
1 Q
a
4 0 r r2 2 2
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Chapter 2
MANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING
Coulomb’s Law and Electric Field Intensity
Chapter 2 Coulomb’s Law and Electric Field Intensity
Field Due to a Continuous Volume Charge Distribution
We denote the volume charge density by ρv, having the units of coulombs per
cubic meter (C/m3).
The small amount of charge ΔQ in a small volume Δv is
Q v v
We may define ρv mathematically by using a limit on the above equation:
Q
v lim
v 0 v
The total charge within some finite volume is obtained by integrating
throughout that volume:
Q dv
vol
v
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Chapter 2 Coulomb’s Law and Electric Field Intensity
Chapter 2
MANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING
Coulomb’s Law and Electric Field Intensity
Field Due to a Continuous Volume Charge Distribution
The contributions of all the volume charge in a given region, let the volume
element Δv approaches zero, is an integral in the form of:
1 v (r)dv r r
E(r ) 4
vol 0 r r
2
r r
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Chapter 2 2
Chapter
MANGALORE INSTITUTE
Coulomb’s Law
Coulomb’s andand
Law
OF
Electric
TECHNOLOGY
Field
Electric Intensity
Field Intensity
AND ENGINEERING
Field of a Line Charge
Now we consider a filamentlike distribution of volume charge density. It is
convenient to treat the charge as a line charge of density ρL C/m.
Let us assume a straight-line charge
extending along the z axis in a cylindrical
coordinate system from
–∞ to +∞.
We desire the electric field intensity E at
any point resulting from a uniform line
charge density ρL.
Department of Mechanical Engineering dE dE a dEz a z
Chapter 2 Coulomb’s Law and Electric Field Intensity
Chapter 2
MANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING
Coulomb’s Law and Electric Field Intensity
Field of a Line Charge
The incremental field dE only has the components in aρ and az
direction, and no aΦ direction. • Why?
The component dEz is the result of
symmetrical contributions of line
segments above and below the
observation point P.
Since the length is infinity, they are
canceling each other ► dEz = 0.
The component dEρ exists, and from
the Coulomb’s law we know that dEρ
will be inversely proportional to the
distance to the line charge, ρ.
dE dE a dEz a z
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Chapter 2 2
MANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING
Coulomb’s Law and Electric Field Intensity
Chapter
Field of a Line Charge
Take P(0,y,0), r z a z
1 dQ(r r) r ya y a
dE
4 0 r r 3
1 L dz( a za z )
4 0 ( 2 z 2 ) 3 2
1 L a dz
4 0 ( 2 z2 )3 2
1 L dz
E 4
0 ( 2
z 2 32
)
L z
4 0 2 ( 2 z2 )1 2
dE dE a dEz a z
L
E
2 0 Department of Mechanical Engineering
Chapter 2
MANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING
Coulomb’s Law and Electric Field Intensity
Field of a Line Charge
Now let us analyze the answer itself:
L
E a
2 0
The field falls off inversely with the distance to the charged line, as
compared with the point charge, where the field decreased with the
square of the distance.
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Chapter 2
MANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING
Coulomb’s Law and Electric Field Intensity
Chapter 2
Field of a Sheet of Charge
Another basic charge configuration
is the infinite sheet of charge
having a uniform density of ρS
C/m2.
The charge-distribution family is
now complete: point (Q), line (ρL),
surface (ρS), and volume (ρv).
Let us examine a sheet of charge above, which is placed in the
yz plane.
The plane can be seen to be assembled from an infinite
number of line charge, extending along the z axis, from –∞ to
Department of Mechanical Engineering
+∞.
Chapter 2
MANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING
Coulomb’s Law and Electric Field Intensity
Chapter 2
Field of a Sheet of Charge
For a differential width strip dy’, the line
charge density is given by
ρL = ρSdy’.
The component dEz at P is zero, because
the differential segments above and below
the y axis will cancel each other.
The component dEy at P is also zero,
because the differential segments to the right
and to the
left of z axis will cancel each
other.
Only dEx is present, and this component is a
function of x alone.
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Chapter 2
MANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING
Coulomb’s Law and Electric Field Intensity
Chapter 2
Field of a Sheet of Charge
The contribution of a strip to Ex at P
is given by:
s dy
dEx cos
2 0 x y
2 2
xdy
s 2
2 0 x y2
Adding the effects of all the strips,
s xdy
Ex x 2 y 2
2 0
s y
tan 1
2 0 x
s
2 0 Department of Mechanical Engineering
Chapter 2
MANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING
Coulomb’s Law and Electric Field Intensity
Chapter 2 Field of a Sheet of Charge
Fact: The electric field is always directed away from the positive charge, into
the negative charge.
We now introduce a unit vector aN, which is normal to the sheet and directed
away from it.
s
E aN
2 0
The field of a sheet of charge is constant in magnitude and direction. It is
not a function of distance.
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Chapter 2
MANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING
Coulomb’s Law and Electric Field Intensity
Electric Flux Density
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Chapter 2
MANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING
Coulomb’s Law and Electric Field Intensity
Electric Flux Density
About 1837, the Director of the Royal Society in London, Michael Faraday, was interested
in static electric fields and the effect of various insulating materials on these fields.
This is the lead to his famous invention, the electric motor.
He found that if he moved a magnet through a loop of wire, an electric current flowed in
the wire. The current also flowed if the loop was moved over a stationary magnet.
►Changing magnetic field produces an electric field.
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Chapter 2
MANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING
Coulomb’s Law and Electric Field Intensity
Chapter 3
Electric Flux Density
In his experiments, Faraday had a pair of concentric metallic
spheres constructed, the outer one consisting of two
hemispheres that could be firmly clamed together.
He also prepared shells of insulating material (or dielectric
material), which would occupy the entire volume between the
concentric spheres.
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Chapter 2
MANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING
Coulomb’s Law and Electric Field Intensity
Chapter 3 Electric Flux Density
Faraday found out, that there was a sort of “charge displacement” from the
inner sphere to the outer sphere, which was independent of the medium.
We refer to this flow as displacement, displacement flux, or simply electric
flux.
ψQ
Where ψ is the electric flux, measured in coulombs, and Q is the total
charge on the inner sphere, also in coulombs.
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Chapter 2
MANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING
Coulomb’s Law and Electric Field Intensity
Chapter 3
Electric Flux Density
At the surface of the inner sphere, ψ
coulombs of electric flux are produced
by the given charge Q coulombs, and
distributed uniformly over a surface
having an area of 4πa2 m2.
The density of the flux at this surface
is ψ/4πa2 or Q/4πa2 C/m2.
The new quantity, electric flux density, is measured in C/m2 and
denoted with D.
The direction of D at a point is the direction of the flux lines at
that point.
The magnitude of D is given by the number of flux lines
crossing a surface normal to the lines divided by the surface
area. Department of Mechanical Engineering
Chapter
Chapter 2 3
MANGALORE INSTITUTE
Electric
Coulomb’s LawFlux
OF TECHNOLOGY
andDensity,
Electric Gauss’s
AND ENGINEERING
Law, and Divergence
Field Intensity
Electric Flux Density
Referring again to the concentric
spheres, the electric flux density is in
the radial direction :
Q
D r a a (inner sphere)
4 a 2 r
Q
D r b a (outer sphere)
4 b 2 r
At a distance r, where a ≤ r ≤ b,
Q
D a
4 r 2 r
If we make the inner sphere smaller and smaller, it becomes a
point charge while still retaining a charge of Q. The electrix flux
density at a point r meters away is still given by:
Q
D a Department of Mechanical Engineering
4 r 2 r
Chapter 2
MANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING
Coulomb’s Law and Electric Field Intensity
Chapter 3
Electric Flux Density
Comparing with the radial electric field intensity of a point
charge in free space is:
Q
E ar
4 0 r 2
Therefore, in free space, the following relation applies:
D 0E
For a general volume charge distribution in free space:
v dv
E a
vol 4 R 2 R
0
v dv
D a
vol 4 R 2 R Department of Mechanical Engineering
Mangalore
MANGALOREInstitute ofTECHNOLOGY
INSTITUTE OF Technology &ENGINEERING
AND Engineering
THANK YOU