30-Dec-15
Lecture on
Power Flow Control
By
Md. Minarul Islam
Lecturer
Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering
Shahjalal University of Science and Technology
Observation of Newton-Raphson Method
The number of iterations required by the Newton-Raphson method
using bus admittances is practically independent of the number of
busses.
The time for the Gauss-Seidel method (employing bus
admittances) increases almost directly with the number of buses.
On the other hand, computing the elements of the Jacobian is time-
consuming, and the time per iteration is considerably longer for the
Newton-Raphson method.
But using sparse matrix techniques (matrix solving method) time
consumption for solving with same accuracy for all but small with
Newton Raphson method can be reduced.
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Observation of Newton-Raphson Method
Remember the state equation of Newton-Raphson method
P2 P2 P2 P2 2 P2
| V2 | | V4 |
4 | V2 | | V4 |
2
J 11 J 12
P4 P4
| V2 |
P4
| V4 |
P4 4
P
4 | V2 | | V4 | 4
2
Q2 Q2 Q2 Q2 | V2 | Q2
| V | | V |
| V4 | | V2 |
2 4
2 4 | V2 |
J 21 J 22
Q4 Q4 Q4 Q4 | V4 | Q4
| V2 | | V4 |
|
2 4 2 V | | V4 | V4 |
|
Jacobian Corrections Mismatches
If we use this method to solve any load flow problem, we shall find that
Change in the voltage angle δ at a bus primarily affects the flow of real
power P in the transmission lines and leaves the flow of reactive power Q
relatively unchanged.
Change in the voltage magnitude |V| at a bus primarily affects the flow of
reactive power Q in the transmission lines and leaves the flow of real
power P relatively unchanged.
Hence to control real power flow in any transmission line we should control
power angle δ and to control reactive power flow in any transmission line we
should control voltage magnitude.
Power Flow Control:
Voltage Control of Transformers
Switching of shunt capacitor banks
Excitation Control
Prime mover Control
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Voltage Control of Transformers
Voltage control in transformers is required to compensate for varying voltage
drops in the system and to control reactive power flow over transmission lines.
Transformers may also be used to control phase angle and, therefore, active
power flow.
The two commonly used methods are:
tap changing transformers and
regulating transformers.
Tap Changing Transformers:
Practically all power transformers and many distribution transformers have
taps in one or more winding for changing the turn ratio.
This method is the most popular since it can be used for controlling at all
levels.
Tap changing, by altering the voltage magnitude, affects the distribution of
vars and may therefore be used to control the flow of reactive power.
There are two types of tap changing transformers.
Off-load tap changing transformers
Tap changing under load (TCUL) transformers
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Tap Changing Transformers:
Off-load tap changing transformers
The off-load tap changing transformer requires the disconnection of the
transformer when the tap setting is to be changed.
Off-load tap changers are used when it is expected that the ratio will need to be
changed only infrequently, because of load growth or some seasonal change.
A typical transformer might have four taps in addition to the nominal setting,
with spacing of 2.5 percent of full-load voltage between them.
Such an arrangement provides for adjustments of up to 5 percent above or
below the nominal voltage rating of the transformer.
Tap Changing Transformers:
Tap changing under load (TCUL) transformers
Tap changing under load (TCUL) is used when changes in ratio may be
frequent or when it is undesirable to de-energize the transformer to
change a tap.
A large number of units are now being built with load tap changing
equipment.
It is used on transformers and autotransformers for transmission tie, for
bulk distribution units, and at other points of load service.
Basically, a TCUL transformer is a transformer with the ability to change
taps while power is connected.
A TCUL transformer may have built-in voltage sensing circuitry that
automatically changes taps to keep the system voltage constant.
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Tap Changing Transformers:
Tap changing under load (TCUL) transformers
Tapping on both ends of a radial transmission line can be adjusted to
compensate for the voltage drop in the line.
Consider one phase of a three-phase transmission line with a step-up
transformer at the sending end and a step-down transformer at the
receiving end of the line.
A single-line representation is shown in Figure 3.24, where tS and tR are
the tap setting in per-unit.
Figure 3.24 A radial line with tap changing transformers at both ends.
Tap Changing Transformers:
Tap changing under load (TCUL) transformers
In this diagram, V1 is the supply phase voltage referred to the high voltage side, and
V2 is the load phase voltage, also referred to the high voltage side.
The impedance shown includes the line impedance plus the referred impedances of
the sending end and the receiving end transformers to the high voltage side.
Figure 3.24 A radial line with tap changing transformers at both ends.
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Tap Changing Transformers:
Tap changing under load (TCUL) transformers
Figure 3.24 A radial line with tap changing
transformers at both ends. Figure 3.25 Voltage phasor diagram.
If VS and VR are the phase voltages at both ends of the line, we
The phasor diagram for the above equation is shown in Figure 3.25.
Tap Changing Transformers:
Tap changing under load (TCUL) transformers
Figure 3.24 A radial line with tap changing
transformers at both ends. Figure 3.25 Voltage phasor diagram.
The phase shift δ between the two ends of the line is usually small, and we
can neglect the vertical components of VS. Approximating VS by its horizontal
component results in
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Tap Changing Transformers:
Tap changing under load (TCUL) transformers
Regulating Transformers or Boosters:
Regulating transformers, also known as boosters, are used to change the
voltage magnitude and phase angle at a certain point in the system by a
small amount.
A booster consists of an exciting transformer and a series transformer.
Voltage Magnitude Control:
Figure 3.26 shows the connection of a regulating transformer for phase a of a three-
phase system for voltage magnitude control. Other phases have identical arrangement.
Figure 3.26 Regulating transformers for voltage magnitude control.
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Regulating Transformers or Boosters:
Voltage Magnitude Control:
Figure 3.26 Regulating transformers for voltage magnitude control.
The secondary of the exciting transformer is tapped, and the voltage
obtained from it is applied to the primary of the series transformer.
The corresponding voltage on the secondary of the series transformer is
added to the input voltage. Thus, the output voltage is
Regulating Transformers or Boosters:
Voltage Magnitude Control:
Figure 3.26 Regulating transformers for voltage magnitude control.
Since the voltages are in phase, a booster of this type is called an in-phase
booster.
The output voltage can be adjusted by changing the excitation
transformers taps.
By changing the switch from position 1 to 2, the polarity of the voltage
across the series transformer is reversed, so that the output voltage is now
less than the input voltage.
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Regulating Transformers or Boosters:
Phase Angle Control:
Regulating transformers are also used to control the voltage phase angle.
If the injected voltage is out of phase with the input voltage, the resultant
voltage will have a phase shift with respect to the input voltage.
Phase shifting is used to control active power flow at major intertie buses.
A typical arrangement for phase a of a three-phase system is shown in Figure
3.27.
Figure 3.27 Regulating transformer for voltage phase angle control.
Regulating Transformers or Boosters:
Phase Angle Control:
The series transformer of phase a is supplied from the secondary of the
exciting transformer bc.
The injected voltage ∆Vbc is in quadrature with the voltage Van, thus the
goes through a phase shift α, as shown in Fugure 3.28.
resultant voltage Van
The output voltage is
Figure 3.28 Voltage phasor
Figure 3.27 Regulating transformer for diagram showing phase
voltage phase angle control. shifting effect for phase a.
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Regulating Transformers or Boosters:
Phase Angle Control:
Similar connections are made for the remaining phases, resulting in a balanced
three phase output voltage.
The amount of phase shift can be adjusted by changing the excitation
transformer taps.
By changing the switch from position 1 to 2, the output voltage can be made to
lag or lead the input voltage.
The advantages of the regulating transformers are
The main transformers are free from tappings.
The regulating transformers can be used at any intermediate
point in the system.
The regulating transformers and the tap changing gears can be
taken out of service for maintenance without affecting the
system.
Regulating Transformers or Boosters:
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Prime mover Control
Switching Of Shunt Capacitor Banks
Shunt capacitors supply reactive power and boost local
voltages.
They are used throughout the system and are applied in a wide
range of sizes.
Application
Shunt capacitors in Distribution system
Shunt capacitor application to transmission system
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Shunt capacitors in Distribution system
Shunt capacitors are used extensively in distribution systems for
power factor correction and feeder voltage control.
Distribution capacitors are usually switched by automatic means
responding to simple time clocks, or to voltage or current-sensing
relays.
The objective of power-factor correction is to provide reactive
power close to the point where it is being consumed, rather than
supply it from remote sources.
Most loads absorb reactive power; that is, they have lagging power
factors.
Power factor correction is provided by means of fixed (permanently
connected) and switched shunt capacitors at various voltage levels
throughout the distribution systems.
Shunt capacitors in Distribution system
Low voltage banks are used for large customers and medium
voltage banks are used at intermediate switching stations.
For large industrial plants, as shown in Figure 11.36, power factor
correction is applied at different levels:
individual motors,
groups of motors, and
the overall plant.
Figure 11.26 Power factor correction in
industrial plants
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Shunt capacitors in Distribution system
Switched shunt capacitors are also used extensively for feeder
voltage control.
They are installed at appropriate locations along the length of the
feeder to ensure that voltages at all points remain within the
allowable maximum and minimum limits as the loads vary.
The application of shunt capacitors is coordinated with that of feeder
voltages regulators or booster transformers.
Shunt capacitor application to transmission system
Shunt capacitors are used to compensate for the XI2 losses in
transmission systems and to ensure satisfactory voltage levels
during heavy loading conditions.
Capacitors banks of appropriate sizes are connected either directly
to the high voltage bus or to the tertiary winding of the main
transformer, as shown in Figure 11.37.
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Shunt capacitor application to transmission system
They are breaker-switched either automatically by a voltage relay or
manually.
Switching of capacitor banks provides a convenient means of
controlling transmission system voltages.
They are normally distributed throughout the transmission system so
as to minimize losses and voltage drops.
Detailed power flow studies are performed to minimize the size and
location of capacitor banks to meet the system design criteria which
specify maximum allowable voltage drop following specified
contingencies.
Excitation Control
When the load on the supply system changes, the terminal
voltage of the alternator also varies due to the changed voltage
drop in the synchronous reactance of the armature.
The voltage of the alternator can be kept constant by changing
the *field current of the alternator in accordance with the load.
This is known as excitation control method.
The excitation of alternator can be controlled by the use of
automatic or hand operated regulator acting in the field circuit
of the alternator.
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References
1. Reference: Power System Analysis by Hadi Sadat
2. Reference: Power System Stability and Control by P. Kundur
3. Principle of power system by V.K. Mehta
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