Sindhi Language: Historical Context and Significance
The term "Sindhi" refers to anything related to Sindh, a region along the River Indus stretching from
latitude 29 N to the Arabian Sea. The name "Sindhi" signifies the language spoken in this area.
Historically, the word "Sindhi" first appeared in rock inscriptions around 2500 years ago. During the
Avestan period, the Aryans lived in a vast region divided into sixteen lands. They used names of these
lands to refer to each other collectively. The Achaemenian kings, around 2500 years ago, mentioned thirty
names of Aryan provinces in their inscriptions, including "Hindu" (Sindhu) and its adjective "Hinduya"
(Sindhi). This was the first recorded use of "Sindhi" to describe the people of the Indus Valley.
Additionally, the Sanskrit word "Sindhu" in the plural form, meaning "men from Sindh," appeared in the
Mahabharata. Greek writers of that era, following the Iranian pronunciation, used terms like "Indos,"
"India," and "Indioi," making them the second to refer to the people as "Sindhi."
It is believed that the name "Sindhi" for the language may have originated around 2500 years ago.
However, it is also possible that the Sindhi language was spoken during the Indus Civilization in the 3rd
millennium B.C., making its history span approximately six thousand years.
Origin of the Sindhi Language:
Indo-European Family and Indo-Aryan Vernaculars
Sindhi is part of the Indo-European language family, specifically within the northwestern group of Indo-
Aryan languages. It is primarily spoken in the lower Indus Valley of Pakistan.
The exact origins of Sindhi are unclear. Scholars debate whether it descends from the language of the
ancient Indus Valley Civilization (3rd millennium B.C.), is an offshoot of Sanskrit, or emerged from a
pre-Sanskrit Indo-Aryan language. This uncertainty is partly due to the undeciphered script of the Indus
Civilization.
Despite the mystery surrounding its origins, there are striking cultural similarities between the Indus
Civilization and contemporary Sindh. Artifacts and traditions from ancient Mohenjodaro, such as the
well-trimmed beard of the King Priest, the bangles worn by women, double-edged combs, pottery, and
symbols of animals like the crescent-horned bull and the ibex, persist in modern Sindhi culture.
Some hypothesize that today's Sindhi could be the language of the Indus Civilization, given the cultural
continuity. However, this remains unproven scientifically. Attempts by various scholars, including Dr.
Asko Parpola and M. H. Panhwar, to decipher the Indus script and link it to a known language have been
inconclusive. Panhwar criticizes the assumption that the Indus script is Dravidian, suggesting that this
presumption has led to failure in deciphering the script.
The origin and ancestry of the Sindhi language have been widely debated among academics, scholars,
linguists, and experts in ethno-archaeology. Despite extensive research, the linguistic roots of Sindhi
remain uncertain. Several scholars have proposed different theories about its origin. Some notable figures
include G.A. Grierson, Ernest Trumpp, Caldwell, Hoernle, George Stack, Emeneau, H.T. Sorley, N.A.
Baloch, Sirajul Haq Memon, Murlidhar Jetely, Parso Gidwani, Massica, S.K. Chatterji, M.H. Panhwar,
Bherumal Advani, Jairamdas Daulatram, G.A. Allana, and Y.K. Wadhwani.
Theories on Sindhi's Origin
1. Western Scholars' Views:
19th and 20th Century Scholars: Scholars like Stack, Trumpp, Beames, and Grierson believed that
modern Sindhi originated from Vrachada Apabhramsa, a dialect derived from Sanskrit. This view was
based on the work of Prakrit grammarian Markandeya.
Prakrit and Apabhramsa: These scholars suggested that Sindhi evolved from a highly corrupt form of
language derived from Sanskrit. For example, Ernest Trumpp stated that Sindhi retained many
grammatical forms from ancient Prakrit, making it closer to the original language than other North Indian
languages like Hindi or Punjabi.
2. Indigenous Scholars' Views:
Connection to Indus Valley Civilization: Some Sindhi scholars argue that the roots of Sindhi can be traced
to the ancient Indus Valley Civilization, specifically the city of Mohenjo-daro. Despite the undeciphered
script found at the site, these scholars believe that the language used there was an early form of Sindhi.
Criticism of Western Theories: Indigenous scholars challenge the theory that Sindhi is a derivative of
Sanskrit. Figures like Dr. N.A. Baloch and G.A. Allana propose that Sindhi is an ancient Indo-Aryan
language, possibly predating Sanskrit and having influences from Dravidian languages and other Indo-
Iranian tongues.
Key Theories and Contributions
1. Ernest Trumpp (1872):
Sindhi from Sanskrit: Trumpp believed that Sindhi was directly derived from Sanskrit. He argued that
Sindhi retained many ancient grammatical forms lost in other modern Indian languages.
Grammatical Structure: He praised Sindhi's grammatical structure, considering it more intact and
beautiful compared to other North Indian vernaculars.
2. G.A. Grierson (1903):
Northwest Indo-Aryan Group: Grierson suggested that Sindhi and Lahnda (Western Punjabi) belonged to
the northwest group of the Indo-Aryan languages and had connections to Dardic languages like Kashmiri.
Vrachada Apabhramsa: He supported the theory that Sindhi originated from the Vrachada dialect, a form
of Apabhramsa mentioned by Prakrit grammarian Markandeya.
3. Dr. N.A. Baloch:
Ancient Indo-Aryan Language: Baloch believed Sindhi was an ancient language from the Indus Valley,
influenced by various languages over time, including Sanskrit, Pali, and Persian.
Dardic Connections: He noted that Sindhi, Lahnda, and Dardic languages share a common origin from
early Aryan settlements along the Indus Valley.
4. M.H. Panhwar:
Proto Indo-European Roots: Panhwar argued that Sindhi evolved from a proto-Indo-European language,
influenced by numerous languages over millennia, including Rig Vedic Sanskrit, Pali, and Persian.
5. Sirajul Haq Memon:
Oldest Language Claim: Memon claimed Sindhi was one of the oldest languages, predating even
Sanskrit. He argued that Sindhi influenced the development of Sanskrit and other Indo-Aryan languages.
6. Y.K. Wadhwani:
Modern Sindhi's Emergence: Wadhwani suggested that modern Sindhi became an independent language
around the 10th century AD, evolving from earlier Prakrit and Apabhramsa dialects.
7. Jairamdas Daulatram:
Local Apabhramsa: Daulatram proposed that Sindhi evolved from a local Apabhramsa dialect in the Indus
Valley, related to but distinct from other Indo-Aryan languages.
8. G.A. Allana:
Independent Development: Allana argued that Sindhi was an original language of the Indus Valley, not
derived from Sanskrit. He emphasized its unique development influenced by various languages over time.
Global Distribution:
The Sindhi language, originating from Sindh in Pakistan, is spoken by communities around the world.
These communities include immigrants and permanent settlers in various regions across Asia, Africa, the
Middle East, North America, Europe, and Australia. In the Middle East, Sindhi speakers are found in
countries like Saudi Arabia, Dubai, and Muscat. In the Far East, they reside in places such as Hong Kong,
Singapore, Thailand, the Philippines, Indonesia, Malaysia, Fiji, and Hawaii. In Africa, Sindhi-speaking
populations are present in Tanzania, Kenya, Zimbabwe, Congo, South Africa, and Madagascar. The global
Sindhi diaspora actively maintains their language through various linguistic, literary, and cultural
activities.
Regional Influence:
In South Asia, Sindhi's influence extends beyond Sindh to parts of Pakistan and India. It is spoken in
Punjab, the former state of Bahawalpur, Balochistan, and the North-Western Frontier Province (NWFP),
as well as in neighboring Iranian Balochistan and Indian regions like Rajasthan, Kutch, Gujarat,
Kathiawar, Marwar, Jaisalmer, and Jodhpur.
Population:
Estimates suggest that around 35 million people speak Sindhi worldwide. However, based on more
conservative data, this number is closer to 24 million. In Pakistan, the number of Sindhi speakers was
estimated to be about 17 million in the 1990s, while in India, following the partition of 1947, there were
about 2.8 million Sindhi speakers. The Sindhi-speaking population in Pakistan is concentrated in Sindh
but also includes significant numbers in Balochistan, particularly in areas like Sibi and Lasbela, where
80% of the population speaks Sindhi as their mother tongue. In regions like Qalat, Balochi Kohistan,
Makran, Gwadar, Ormara, Pasni, and Jadgal, Sindhi is used as a second language. Additionally, many
residents of Rahim Yar Khan in Punjab speak Sindhi. Historically, Sindhi was spoken up to Multan until
the 13th century. In India, minority populations in Kutch, Gujarat, and Kathiawar also speak Sindhi as
their mother tongue. There is also a considerable Sindhi-speaking population in Iranian Balochistan,
adjacent to Pakistan.
Sindhi has several dialects that vary across different regions:
Siroli: Spoken in Upper Sindh, it gets its name from the Sindhi word "siro," meaning 'head' or upper part
of the body.
Vicholi: Known as the standard dialect of Sindhi, spoken in Central Sindh. The word "vich-u" in Sindhi
means 'middle' or center.
Lari: Used in Lower Sindh, including areas like Hyderabad, Thatta, and Badin. It retains older forms and
has influences from Dardic languages.
Thareli: Found in Thar Desert of Sindh, it blends Sindhi with Rajasthani and Marwari languages.
Kuchhi: A mix of Sindhi and Gujarati, spoken in lower Sindh and Kutch region.
Kohistani: Spoken in the mountainous areas between Karachi and Dadu districts.
Lasi: Spoken in Las Bela area, which is now part of Balochistan but historically connected to Sindh.
These dialects reflect the linguistic diversity within Sindhi-speaking regions, each with its unique
characteristics in pronunciation, vocabulary, and cultural influences. While Vicholi is recognized as the
standard dialect used in education, media, and literature, the other dialects play significant roles in local
communities and reflect historical interactions with neighboring regions and cultures.
Sanskrit and Prakrit:
Definition and Origin: Sanskrit derives from the root "Krit," meaning "to do," with "Sanskrit" itself
translating to "polished" or "refined language." It was developed and standardized by Brahman Hindus
for literary and cultural purposes. In contrast, Prakrit, from "Pirkriti," means "nature" or "original form,"
with "Vikrit" as its antonym, meaning "distorted" or "corrupted." Prakrits were the vernacular languages
spoken across ancient South Asia.
Development and Relationship: Scholars debate whether Sanskrit originated from Prakrit or vice versa.
Historically, Prakrits were spoken languages evolving from ancient vernaculars, used in everyday
communication. Sanskrit, influenced by Brahmanical schools, emerged as a standardized literary
language around the 7th to 5th century B.C., distinct from the colloquial Prakrits.
Sindhi Language: Sindhi, spoken in present-day Pakistan, is not directly derived from Sanskrit but
shares historical connections with Prakrits. It evolved independently within its region, influenced by local
cultures and historical interactions. Sindhi, thus, represents a distinct linguistic tradition within the
broader context of South Asian languages.
Cultural and Linguistic Influence: Sanskrit's role as a prestigious language impacted regional dialects
like Prakrits and eventually influenced the development of languages such as Sindhi. While Sanskrit
served as a vehicle for literary expression, Prakrits and later vernaculars like Sindhi evolved to reflect
local identities and cultural nuances.
In summary, while Sanskrit and Prakrits share historical and linguistic interconnections, each served
distinct purposes in ancient South Asia. Sanskrit, as a polished literary language, coexisted with Prakrits,
which were spoken vernaculars. Sindhi, developing independently, represents a unique linguistic heritage
shaped by regional influences over millennia.
LINGUISTIC DEVELOPMENT
In ancient times, the region of Sindh, now in Pakistan, has a rich historical and literary heritage.
Petroglyphs found along the Seeta River in the Khirthar mountain range indicate that people in Sindh
were recording something on rocks long ago, suggesting an early form of writing. During the era of
Mohenjo-daro (2500-1500 B.C.), the language spoken was likely an ancient form of Sindhi, though its
script remains undeciphered. This period also hints at the existence of literature in Sindhi, but extensive
excavations, especially at Mohenjo-daro, haven't yet revealed a definitive library like the Rosetta Stone,
which could help decode the ancient Indus Script.
Proto-Sindhi and Primary Sindhi Prakrit, which predate well-known Sanskrit writings and even epics like
the Ramayana and Mahabharata. It highlights the influence of Jainism in Sindh, where the Tirthankar
Anshanath preached in Sindhi and spread his teachings to Bengal. By the 7th and 8th centuries A.D.,
Sindhi was recognized as one of the important languages in the Indian subcontinent, known for its
graceful and patriotic poetry.
However, Sindh's history also includes periods of invasion and destruction by various conquerors,
resulting in the burning and looting of libraries and erasure of academic records. Despite these challenges,
Sindhi literature and its cultural legacy have persevered through the ages, reflecting the resilience of its
people in preserving their history and language.
The Indus Script was discovered in the early 1920s at Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, ancient cities of the
Indus Valley Civilization. Archaeologists found this script on seals, pottery fragments, and other artifacts
dating back to the 3rd millennium B.C. Despite numerous attempts, including computerized studies by
scholars like Asko Parpola and John Hunter, the script remains undeciphered. Many linguists continue to
study it in hopes of uncovering its origins.
Some researchers speculate that the Indus Script could be related to the Sindhi language due to cultural
similarities between ancient and modern Sindhi civilizations. However, this connection remains
hypothetical.
During the medieval era, various scripts evolved in South Asia following the decline of the Indus
Civilization around 1650 B.C. These include the Brahmi script, which gave rise to languages like
Sanskrit, as well as other scripts like Kharosthi, Gupta, and Devanagari. In Sindh, the Sindhi language
was historically written in scripts such as Devanagari and Khuwajki before adopting the Arabic script in
the 11th century A.D. This historical evolution underscores the rich linguistic heritage of the region.
During the Arab rule in Sindh, which lasted from around 711 to 1010 A.D., significant developments
occurred in the cultural and linguistic landscape of the region. The Sindhi-Arabic script emerged during
this period, blending local Sindhi with Arabic influences. This script facilitated the spread of Islamic
literature and medieval poetry, enriching Sindhi language and literature. Trade flourished between Sindh
and the Arab world, enhancing Sindh's international stature. Scholars like Al-Beruni documented Sindh's
history, further elevating its cultural significance.
After Arab control waned in 1010 A.D., local dynasties like the Soomras (11th to mid-14th century) and
Sammas (1350-1520) rose to power. They continued to patronize Sindhi language and culture, promoting
the Sindhi-Arabic script and fostering literary traditions. The Samma era, known as the 'Golden Age of
Sindh,' saw economic prosperity and intellectual freedom, which further consolidated Sindhi literature
and expanded its linguistic influence into regions like Kuchh and Las Belo. Overall, this period marked a
significant chapter in the development and spread of Sindhi language and culture in South Asia.
The Development of Sindhi Language under British Rule
After the British conquered Sindh in 1843, they faced the challenge of communication in administrative
affairs. Initially, there was a debate about which script should be used for Sindhi—some favored
Devanagari, while others preferred a Persian-Arabic script. Eventually, in 1853, the British decided on the
Perso-Arabic script for Sindhi, which is still used today. This decision had both linguistic and political
implications, as it shifted Sindhi away from its historical ties with Sanskrit and Pali towards a script more
aligned with Muslim cultural identity.
Modern Developments in Sindhi Language
In the early 20th century, efforts to modernize Sindhi language tools began with the introduction of the
Sindhi typewriter, first made by an American company called Remington in 1926. This typewriter, known
as 'Monarch', symbolized the beginning of technological advancements for Sindhi language usage. Later,
in 1973, a more advanced Sindhi typewriter named 'Al-Mustafa Hermes Typewriter' was developed with
Swiss technical expertise and efforts from the Vice Chancellor of Sindh University, Syed Ghulam Mustafa
Shah, and intellectual Muhammad Ibrahim Joyo. This modern typewriter paved the way for Sindhi to
become a computer language in the 1990s, marking a significant milestone in its technological
integration.
Educational and Literary Impact
Under British rule, significant work began in Sindhi literature and education. Grammar books, history
texts, and dictionaries were written or translated into Sindhi from languages such as Hindi, Sanskrit,
Bengali, Urdu, Persian, and English. This period also saw the establishment of literary societies and the
mass production of periodicals aimed at celebrating and promoting Sindhi language and culture. While
English education gained popularity among Hindus as a means to enter government service, Muslims
initially showed reluctance. The annexation of Sindh to Bombay Presidency increased interaction with
Hindi and Hindustani languages, but this influence waned after Sindh separated from Bombay Presidency
in 1936, returning Sindh to a predominantly monolingual Sindhi-speaking region.
Sindhi Language Development Post-Partition:
After the partition of India in 1947, Sindh in Pakistan transitioned from a monolingual state, where Sindhi
was predominant, to a bilingual province with Sindhi and Urdu as official languages. This shift marked a
change in linguistic policy, as Urdu was declared the national language of Pakistan, emphasizing its role
in national unity. Previously, under British rule, Sindhi had been the primary language of administration
and education in Sindh for over a century.
During the discussions leading up to the decision on Pakistan's national language, various viewpoints
emerged among the ruling elite and intellectuals. Urdu-speaking immigrants argued for Urdu due to its
historical use during India's freedom movement and as a symbol of Muslim identity. Conversely, some,
including Agha Khan, proposed Arabic, citing its significance as the language of the Holy Quran and its
potential diplomatic benefits with Arab countries. Others advocated for the recognition of all indigenous
languages like Bengali, Punjabi, Sindhi, Pashto, and Balochi to promote federalism and inclusivity.
Despite these debates, Mohammad Ali Jinnah unequivocally declared Urdu as Pakistan's sole state
language in 1948, dismissing alternative proposals. This decision sparked tensions, especially in East
Pakistan (now Bangladesh), where Bengali speakers constituted a majority and sought recognition for
Bengali as a national language.
In contemporary Sindh, efforts to promote Sindhi have been robust. The Sindhi Language Authority,
established in 1991, oversees initiatives to develop and preserve Sindhi through educational programs,
literary publications, and cultural activities. Government bodies like the Sindhi Adabi Board and
educational institutions such as the University of Sindh and Shah Abdul Latif University play pivotal
roles in advancing Sindhi language and literature. The advent of digital technology has further bolstered
Sindhi's presence, enabling its use on the internet and in computer applications since the early 2000s.
The study of Sindhi language and literature has a rich history marked by contributions from both
occidental and indigenous scholars, beginning long before British rule in Sindh (1843) and continuing
thereafter.
Sindhi Literature: A Historical Perspective
Sindhi literature dates back over a thousand years, with early works showing a rich blend of cultural
influences. Around 1,000 years ago, an unknown Sindhi scholar wrote a prose version of the Mahabharata
in Sindhi, differing in some aspects from the version known today. This work was later translated into
Arabic, marking it as one of the earliest Sindhi prose works.
Historical records from Arab travelers like Jahiz, Istakhri, and Al-Bairuni, dating from the 8th and 9th
centuries AD, highlight Sindhi's academic environment. Educated people in Sindh were skilled in Sindhi,
Sanskrit, Arabic, and Persian, along with mathematics and astrology. They produced literature in these
languages, showcasing a vibrant cultural and intellectual milieu in ancient Sindh.
Sindhi played a significant role in translating the Arabic text of the Holy Quran in the 9th century AD. At
the request of a non-Muslim ruler of Kashmir, an Iraqi scholar, proficient in Sindhi and poetry, undertook
this task. The early forms of Sindhi literature were primarily oral, evolving into written forms like 'Ginan',
'Doha', and 'Sloka'. These poetic forms continued to flourish during the Soomra dynasty, with 'Bait'
(couplets or verses) becoming prominent.
The script used in the first Sindhi book, 'Muqadama-e-salwat' or 'Abul Hasan’s Sindhi', reflected early
influences. It was later refined by Sir Bartle Frere in 1853 during British rule in Sindh. This restructuring
aimed to give the Sindhi script a more scientific form, enhancing its readability and usability.
During the Soomra period in Sindh, from 1011 to 1315 A.D., significant cultural developments took
place that shaped Sindhi literature and folklore. Despite being considered a less notable era in Sindhi
literary history, the Soomra dynasty fostered the growth of Sindhi oral traditions and folklore, which later
became foundational for classical Sindhi poetry and literature.
One of the earliest pieces of poetry from this era is attributed to an unknown poet in the 14th century
A.D., during the Soomra rule. This poetry, found in Captain Stack's Sindhi Grammar printed in Nagari
script, highlights the early literary endeavors in the region. Additionally, the mystic poetry of Pir
Nooruddin, known as 'Pir Satgur Noor,' further enriched the cultural milieu of Sindh during this period.
His poetic compositions, known as 'Ginans' and preserved in Khojki script, blend Islamic mysticism with
influences from Vedantic thought and Bhagti teachings, incorporating Sindhi, Hindi, Marathi, and
Gujarati words.
Moreover, the Soomra period saw the flourishing of Sindhi folklore through wandering minstrels and
folklorists who preserved and transmitted the region's rich oral traditions. This era is credited with
popularizing many iconic Sindhi folk tales such as Sassui-Punhoon, Saiful Malook, Moomal-Rano, and
others, which have become integral to Sindhi cultural identity. These tales were disseminated widely
during this time, contributing significantly to the cultural heritage of Sindh.
During the Samma period in Sindh (1351-1525 AD), significant developments took place in Sindhi
literature. This era saw the rise of several notable poets and the establishment of poetic forms like Doha
and Sortha. Sheikh Hamad Jamali, Darvesh Raju, and Ishaq Ahangar were prominent poets of this time.
Sheikh Hamad Jamali, known for his Doha poetry, lived near Thatta and his works are still cited in Sindhi
literary history. Ishaq Ahangar, a blacksmith by profession, contributed a single but impactful Doho,
reflecting life in ancient Sindh.
One of the distinctive features of this period was the emergence of prophetic ballads known as Mamui
Faqirs, who composed verses in Doha and Sortha forms. These verses contained cultural, historical, and
geographical elements of Sindh. Another significant poet was Qazi Qadan, a theologian and scholar,
known for his poetic forms influenced by Sufi teachings. His poetry, discovered and compiled from
various sources, marked a blend of Sindhi language with spiritual insights.
In the 17th century, Shah Abdul Karim of Bulri became renowned for integrating Sindhi folk tales like
Sasui-Punhoo and Umar-Marui into his poetry. His verses, collected in "Risala Karimi," emphasized Sufi
themes and spiritual guidance, using folk stories as symbolic narratives. This period laid the groundwork
for the flourishing of Sindhi poetry, paving the way for later poets like Shah Abdul Latif Bhitai and
Sachal Sarmast, who further enriched Sindhi literature with their profound works.
During the Kalhora period (1700-1783), often considered the 'Golden Age' of Sindhi literature, three
remarkable poets emerged: Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai, Sachal Sarmast, and Sami (Bahi Chain Rai Lund).
Among them, Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai stands out as an unparalleled poet not only in Sindhi literature but
also globally recognized. His work is so esteemed that Dr. H.T. Sorley, a renowned scholar, compared
Shah Abdul Latif's mystic poetry with poets from Greek, Latin, Chinese, French, Arabic, and Urdu
traditions, concluding Shah's superiority. Sorley's study, published by Oxford University Press, remains a
seminal work on Shah's poetry.
Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai's popularity stems from his ability to express deep emotions and universal
themes in a language accessible to both Muslims and Hindus in Sindh. His poetry encompasses diverse
subjects such as love, nature, and mysticism, with vivid descriptions of Sindh's landscapes and culture.
His verses, deeply rooted in local traditions and the beauty of the Indus River, are considered almost
untranslatable due to their unique imagery and cultural references.
Shah's poetry immortalizes local legends like Marui and Sohni, transforming their stories into symbols of
spiritual longing and union with the divine. His depiction of female protagonists yearning for their
beloved reflects a profound mystical tradition, distinct from Persian and Turkish Sufi poetry. Shah Abdul
Latif Bhittai's legacy extends beyond literary excellence; he remains a cultural icon in Sindh, celebrated
for his ability to resonate with the common people through poetry that captures the essence of their lives
and aspirations.
Sachal Sarmast (1739-1829), whose name means "truthful mystic," continued Shah Latif's legacy with
his profound poetic contributions. He is celebrated for his mystic poetry that transcended religious
boundaries, advocating for universal love and spiritual enlightenment. Sachal composed in multiple
languages, including Sindhi, Siraiki, and Persian, and transformed the traditional Ghazal into a medium
for conveying mystical teachings, thereby broadening its literary scope.
Saami (Bhai Chainrai Lund) (1750-1848) contributed significantly to Sindhi literature through his
poetic work, "Samia-Ja-Sloka," which expounded Vedantic philosophy in simple, chaste Sindhi verses.
Saami emphasized the quest for spiritual enlightenment and the unity of all beings, reflecting the
indigenous Sindhi ethos and the universal pursuit of divine truth.
During the period before Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai, Shah Lutufullah Qadri (1611-1679 AD) played a
crucial role in shaping classical Sindhi poetry. His collection, edited by Dr N.A. Baloch and published by
the Institute of Sindhology, consists of 337 verses, spanning up to six or seven lines per stanza. Shah
Lutufullah's poetry bridges the gap between earlier poets like Qazi Qadan and Shah Karim of Bulri, and
later luminaries such as Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai, Sami, and Sachal Sarmast. He authored three books,
including "Sindhi Risalo," "Minhajul Maurifat," and "Tuhfatul Salkeen," blending Sindhi and Persian
influences. His "Sindhi Risalo" established the standard form of Sindhi Bait (verse).
Additionally, the period witnessed the emergence of the "Maulood" genre, pioneered by Makhdoom
Abdur-Rauf Bhatti, composed in Persian meter and praising the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon
him). The year 1700 AD marked a turning point in Sindhi literature with Mian Abul Hassan Sindhi's
innovative use of Sindhi verse to explore religious practices, setting a new trend in didactic poetry. This
era also saw the flourishing of theological literature, notably in the form of "Kabat" style writings,
influencing mystical theologians in Thatta
During the Talpur period (1783-1843 AD) in Sindh, there was a significant development in literature and
poetry, particularly in the context of Sindhi and Persian languages. The Talpur rulers were known for their
patronage of literature, which led to a flourishing of literary activities in the region.
During the Kalhora period before the Talpurs, the Persianized form of the Ghazal poetry style was
introduced and further developed under the Talpur dynasty. This style of poetry, characterized by its
intricate themes of love, beauty, and mysticism, became popular and influenced the literary landscape of
Sindh
Pir Muhammad Baqa, also known as Rozay Dhani Pir Pagaro the first, played a crucial role in religious
literature. He contributed significantly in Arabic, Persian, and Sindhi languages, emphasizing religious
teachings and mystical insights through his writings.
Another notable poet of the era was Rohal Faqir, a follower of Shah Inayat of Jhok, known for his mystic
poetry that resonated with both Muslims and Hindus. His work reflected religious tolerance and a liberal
outlook, appealing to diverse audiences in Sindh.
Under Talpur rule, there was a heightened interest in Persian literature. Poets like Syed Sabit Ali Shah and
Akhund Gul Mohammad "Gul" were prominent figures who composed in Persian, Sindhi, and Urdu
languages. Syed Sabit Ali Shah, in particular, was patronized by the Talpur rulers and is credited with
introducing Persian literary styles such as Marthias and Nuhas to Sindhi poetry.
While Persian poetry flourished during this period, there were debates among scholars like Prof Lalsing
Ajwani about its influence on Sindhi language. Some argued that the adoption of Persian prosodic forms
and imagery enriched Sindhi literature, while others questioned whether it diluted the authenticity of
Sindhi linguistic expression.
The Talpur period is remembered as a time of literary vibrancy in Sindh, marked by the integration of
Persian literary traditions with local languages. This era laid the foundation for future developments in
Sindhi and Urdu poetry, contributing to the rich tapestry of literary heritage in Pakistan.
During the British rule in Sindh (1843-1947), Sindhi literature saw significant developments, influenced
by translations and modern literary trends. This era marked a transformative period in academic and
intellectual life in Sindh. Sir Bartle Frere's introduction of the Perso-Arabic script for Sindhi in 1853 was
a pivotal moment, encouraging a surge in Sindhi literary production.
This period saw significant scholarly endeavors that laid the foundation for understanding and
documenting Sindhi linguistics.
George Stack, an early occidental scholar, authored the first English book on Sindhi grammar in 1847,
later published in 1849 as "A Grammar of Sindhi Language." He also compiled comprehensive
dictionaries, including the English-Sindhi Dictionary (1849) and Sindhi-English Dictionary (1855).
Stack's pioneering work predated the British decision to standardize Sindhi using the Arabic script in
1853, advocating instead for the Devanagari script based on his linguistic arguments. His contributions
extended to translating Sindhi folklore, such as "Hidayat Prem," showcasing his deep engagement with
Sindhi literary traditions.
Ernest Trumpp, another occidental scholar, expanded on Stack's work with his "Grammar of the Sindhi
Language" in 1872. Trumpp's approach included detailed comparisons with Sanskrit and other Indian
vernaculars, highlighting Shah Latif's linguistic innovations in his writings. He further contributed to
Sindhi studies with translations of "Shah Jo Risalo" and various linguistic articles that explored Sindhi's
grammatical nuances and literary significance.
Mirza Qalich Baig, a notable indigenous scholar, significantly advanced Sindhi linguistics with works
like the "Sindhi Viyakaranu" (Sindhi Grammar) in multiple volumes and the "Lughaat Latifi" (Dictionary
of Shah Latif's poetry) in 1913. His comprehensive dictionaries and historical analyses, such as the
"Sindhi Boli-Ji-Tarikh" (History of Sindhi Language), remain foundational texts in Sindhi philology and
literature.
These scholars, alongside others like Jhamatmal Narumal Vasnani and Bherumal Maharchand Advani,
have collectively contributed over 50 scholarly works, shaping the evolution of Sindhi linguistics and
literature. Their efforts have not only preserved Sindhi cultural heritage but also paved the way for future
generations to explore the linguistic mysteries and academic challenges inherent in Sindhi literary
treasures.
Literary Developments:
Before British rule, Persianized forms of poetry dominated Sindhi literature. Poets like Ghulam
Mohammad Shah "Gada", Akhund Muhammad Qasim, and Mir Abdul Hussain Khan "Sangi" excelled in
genres like Ghazal and Qasida, reflecting Persian influences in their style and language. "Sangi"
particularly distinguished himself in Ghazal poetry, admired for his romantic themes and eloquent
expression. His era (1881-1915 AD) is known as the "Sangi age", characterized by rich vocabulary,
Persian and Arabic phrases, and deep philosophical themes.
Prose and Translations:
The development of prose in Sindhi began earnestly during the British period, building on earlier efforts
from the Talpur rule (1782-1843 AD). Sindhi was recognized as an official language in 1854, spurring
literary activities. Noteworthy translations during this time included historical texts like "Tarikh-e
Masoomi" by Diwan Nandiram and religious texts such as the Gospel of Saint Matthew, translated into
Sindhi by missionaries. These translations not only enriched Sindhi prose but also expanded its
vocabulary through borrowings from Arabic, Persian, Hindi, and Sanskrit.
Literary Figures and Contributions:
Prominent writers and translators of this era included Munshi Udharam, Pribhdas, Sayid Miran
Mohammad Shah, Qazi Ghulam Ali, and Diwan Nawalrai. They translated works on history, geography,
ethics, and philosophy, drawing inspiration from various regional and international languages. Literary
pioneers like Dr. Trumpp and Captain Stack contributed significantly to Sindhi literature with works such
as "Shah jo Risalo" and the first Sindhi grammar, enhancing scholarly pursuits in the language.
In the early years after the partition of India and Pakistan in 1947, the literary scene in Sindhi language
saw a vibrant mix of local writers and European scholars contributing significantly. European officers and
missionaries such as Dr. Trumpp, Mr. Shirt, Captain Stack, Mr. Burnes, Mr. Wathen, and R.F Burton
played key roles by writing or compiling important books like "Shah Jo Risalo," grammar guides for
Sindhi, and dictionaries. They also undertook the translation of the Holy Bible into Sindhi, marking a
period characterized by a focus on knowledge and learning, as noted by Professor Mangaram Malkani.
Mirza Qalich Beg (1852-1929) emerged as a pivotal figure in early 20th-century Sindhi literature. He was
not only a poet but also translated significant works like Omar Khayyam's Ruba'iyat into Sindhi, which
became monumental in modern Sindhi poetry. He introduced drama to Sindhi literature by translating
plays like "Leila-Majnun" and "Khurshed" from Urdu, enriching the literary landscape. His contributions,
totaling 457 books on various subjects, highlighted his immense impact on Sindhi language and literature.
During this time, Sindhi poetry diversified into three main schools: the Misri Shah School, which focused
on indigenous forms and Sufi ideology; the Thattavi School, led by Haji Mahmood "Khadim," preferring
Persianized forms; and the Bewas School, also known as the Modern School, which emerged around
1930-1933 with a focus on nationalism and new literary styles. These developments not only enriched
Sindhi literature but also reflected broader cultural and intellectual shifts in the region.
Bewas School of Poetry in Sindhi Literature
The Bewas School of Poetry, led by Kishinchand Bewas (1885-1947), emerged as a significant
movement in Sindhi literature during the early 20th century. Kishinchand Bewas, a school teacher, was
known for his versatile poetry that ranged from celebrating nature and writing simple songs for children
to addressing the hardships faced by the poor. His poetry was praised for its fresh, original expression and
realistic depiction of life, influenced by the ideas of Allama Iqbal, a prominent figure in South Asian
literature.
Contributions and Influence
Bewas was the pioneer of a new style of Sindhi poetry that focused on portraying the truth of life as he
observed it. His ability to keenly observe human nature and societal nuances made his poetry vivid and
impactful. This school of poetry attracted other notable poets such as Hyder Bux Jatoi, who continued
Bewas' legacy by blending traditional themes with modern sensibilities. Jatoi's works, like "Shikwah" and
his contributions to Sindhi literature, further expanded the influence of the Bewas School.
Impact on Sindhi Literature
The Bewas School of Poetry introduced new themes and styles into Sindhi literature, challenging
traditional forms and embracing modern influences from Western and Eastern literatures. This included
adopting free verse and experimenting with new literary forms, which brought revolutionary changes to
Sindhi poetry. Post-independence, poets like Shaikh Ayaz continued this progressive tradition, using their
poetry to advocate for national awakening, freedom, and internationalism while enriching Sindhi
language with new words and expressions.
The Development of Sindhi prose is a significant aspect of its literary history, marked by various
milestones and contributions over the centuries. Sindhi prose began to take shape even before the Arab
influence, with notable early examples emerging under the Habarid rule in Sindh around 833 AD. At this
time, an Iraqi scholar translated the Holy Quran into Sindhi for a local non-Muslim ruler, marking the
earliest known prose writing in Sindhi.
During the 13th or 14th centuries AD, traces of Sindhi prose appeared in the form of prayers by Ismaili
missionaries, aimed at making religious teachings accessible to new converts. These writings, known as
Nasar Muqafi, combined poetic elements with prose for ease of understanding and memorization.
In later centuries, particularly during the Talpur period (1782-1843 AD), notable figures like Akhund
Azizullah of Matiari translated the Quran into Sindhi prose, emphasizing clarity and fidelity to the
original Arabic text. The spread of education and the establishment of the first printing press in Sindh in
1885 further catalyzed the development of Sindhi prose. This period witnessed the rise of literary
societies and publications like "Sindh Sudhar" and "Sarswati," which promoted the writing of stories,
essays, and novels in Sindhi.
By the early 20th century, Sindhi prose flourished with the founding of literary societies and the
publication of numerous novels, dramas, and short stories. Writers like Diwan Jethmal Parsram and
Lalchand Amardino mal played crucial roles in translating and publishing European literary works into
Sindhi, broadening the scope and influence of Sindhi prose.
Sindhi Literature after World War II: Socio-political and Cultural Movements
After World War II, Sindhi literature witnessed a vibrant period marked by significant socio-political and
cultural movements. This era saw the emergence of several influential writers, intellectuals, and literary
societies that shaped the literary landscape of Sindh.
Literary Societies and Movements:
Following the war, movements like the Khilafat and Annie Besant movements provided platforms for
Hindu and Muslim writers to express their views through magazines and newspapers. Notable figures
such as Muhammad Hashim Mukhlis, Hakim Fateh Muhammad Sewhani, Maulana Din Muhammad
Wafai, and Sheikh Abdul Majid Sindhi became prominent editors during this time. Magazines like
Hindwasi, Al-Amin, Bharatwasi, and Ruha Rihan played crucial roles in fostering literary discourse and
cultural exchange.
Prominent Literary Figures:
Scholars and writers like Dr. Hotchand Mulchand Gurbuxani, Mirza Qalich Beg, Bherumal Maharchand,
and Lalchand Amardino Mal made significant contributions to Sindhi literature. Dr. Gurbuxani's scholarly
work on "Shah jo Risalo" and Dr. Daudpota's editing of "Shah Karim Bulri Ware Jo Risalo" were
monumental. Writers such as Bherumal were known for their philological expertise and historical
writings, while Lalchand Amardino Mal pioneered modern Sindhi prose and drama.
Literary Societies and Publications:
Several literary and dramatic societies like Sundar Sahitya Mandal, Sindhi Muslim Adabi Society, and
Rabindranath Dramatic and Literary Society flourished during this period. They published numerous
works that reflected the cultural diversity and social issues of the time. The introduction of modern
techniques and styles in Sindhi prose by writers like Mirza Qalich Beg and Naraindas Bhambhani marked
a significant departure from traditional Arabic and Persian influences.
Impact of World Events:
The aftermath of World War II brought global changes that influenced Sindhi literature. Writers were
inspired by Western literary trends and advancements in science and technology, which shaped new
perspectives on life, politics, and society. This period witnessed prolific literary activity, with scholars,
poets, and thinkers actively engaging in research and creative endeavors.
After the partition of India and Pakistan in 1947, Sindhi literature faced a period of upheaval and
transformation. Many senior Hindu writers migrated to India, leading to the closure of literary societies
and organizations in Sindh. This created a vacuum in literary activities initially, but soon, young Sindhi
Muslim writers, supported by experienced seniors, revived literary societies and restarted journal
publications. New literary organizations also emerged during this period. Despite the initial challenges,
Sindhi literature began to flourish rapidly in both India and Pakistan, with numerous books published
across various literary genres.
Prose Writing:
The development of Sindhi prose was heavily influenced by the demand for immediate social reforms.
Post-independence Sindhi writers, notably in the short story genre, adopted a critical stance towards
issues such as the exploitation by landlords, religious leaders, and bureaucrats. Jamal Abro, known for
works like "Shah jo Phar" and "Mehrbani," used symbolism to highlight societal issues. Writers like Ali
Ahmed Brohi and Kiror Pati added humor and satire to their stories, conveying critical messages in an
engaging manner. Jamal Abro, often compared to Maxim Gorky, portrayed the struggles of the
marginalized classes in Sindh, criticizing the affluent for their exploitative behavior.
Prominent Writers:
Several notable writers emerged in post-independence Sindhi literature. Mohammad Usman Diplai made
significant contributions across novels, dramas, and plays, while Amar Jalil gained popularity for his
fiction, influenced by international authors like Krishan Chander and Hemingway. Rasool Bux Palijo,
known for his critical writings and short stories, depicted the struggles of peasants in his works. Female
writers like Begum Zeenat Channa, Sumera Zareen, and Dr. Rashida Hijab also made significant
contributions, addressing social issues through powerful short stories that resonated with readers.
Literary Magazines and Contributions:
Literary magazines played a crucial role in fostering Sindhi literature's growth. Begum Zeenat Channa's
"Marui" and Begum Khadija Khanum Daudpota's "Adiyoon" provided platforms for emerging writers,
especially women, to express their thoughts and challenge societal norms. Sumera Zareen and Dr.
Rashida Hijab, through their impactful stories in publications like "Nain Zindagi" and "Sukoon,"
contributed to the evolving narrative of Sindhi literature in the post-independence era.
Prominent Sindhi Women Writers and Their Contributions
Several notable Sindhi women writers have made significant contributions to literature, addressing
themes of feminism, social issues, and psychological challenges through their works.
Tanveer Junejo: Known for her anthology of short stories, Tanveer Junejo portrays the struggles of
ordinary Sindhi girls facing societal neglect in both rural and urban settings. Her stories highlight how
these girls endure hardships solely because of their gender, shedding light on feminist issues within the
feudalistic social environment of Sindh.
Noorul Huda Shah: A prolific writer of short stories and dramas, Noorul Huda Shah is celebrated for her
bold approach in addressing societal evils prevalent in Sindhi culture. Her popular short story "Jala-
Watan" is a notable contribution to Sindhi literature, focusing on the suffering of women within the
confines of "Haveli" life, where honor, culture, and religion often dictate oppressive norms.
Khairunnisa Jaffery and Laila Bana: Both professionals in psychology and university professors,
Khairunnisa Jaffery and Laila Bana delve into psychological issues faced by their characters.
Khairunnisa's stories combine satire with poignant humor, touching readers' hearts. Her anthology
"Takhliq Jo Maut" has been well-received by literary critics for its insightful portrayal of human emotions
and societal pressures.
Dr. Fahmida Hussain: Not only a short story writer but also a distinguished research scholar and critic,
Dr. Fahmida Hussain has authored numerous books spanning various topics. Her anthology "Hika Huwa
kaen Khamyoon" reflects stories written during the seventies, capturing the essence of that era. Her
extensive contributions to research and literary criticism are highly commendable, showcasing her
versatility and intellectual depth.
Contribution to Progressive Literature: Inspired by the anti-One Unit struggle in Sindh during the
1960s and 1970s, Sindhi literature of resistance flourished through publications like 'Rooha Rihan', 'Nain
Zindagi', 'Mehran', 'Tehrik', 'Barsaat', 'Sojhro', and 'Suhni'. These platforms, edited by influential figures
such as Hameed Sindhi, Rasool Bux Palijo, and Tariq Ashraf, became pivotal in articulating the socio-
political sentiments and struggles of the time, fostering a progressive literary movement in Sindhi
literature.
Poetry
After the partition of India and the creation of Pakistan in 1947, a significant number of Hindu poets,
writers, and scholars migrated to India, leaving a void in literary circles. This led to the formation of
several literary societies in Sindh to foster Sindhi literature. Some prominent societies included Bazm-e-
Nizami, Bazme-e-Latif, Bazm-e-Khalil, Bazm-e-Bismil, Bazm-e-Ilm-O-Adab Hala, and others patronized
by notable figures like Makhdoom Mohammad Zaman "Talibul Moula". These societies played crucial
roles in encouraging young writers and organizing literary conferences across Sindh, publishing the
influential monthly magazine "Adab-e-Sindh".
In 1946, the Sindhi Adabi Sangat was founded, marking a new literary renaissance. Shaikh Ayaz emerged
as a leading figure in this progressive movement, using poetry to address social issues and promote
cultural revival. This era saw the adoption of diverse poetic forms such as Trialet, free verse, and sonnets,
enriching Sindhi literature. Prominent poets like Tanvir Abbasi, Shamsher-ul Hyderi, Niaz Humayuni, and
Fatah Malik contributed significantly, infusing modern themes and innovative expressions into Sindhi
poetry.
This period also saw the rise of female poets like Roshan Ara Mughal and Sahar Imdad, who added
diversity and depth to Sindhi poetry. Their works, ranging from Ghazals to free verses, reflected national
sentiments and cultural aspirations, contributing to the vibrant literary landscape of post-partition
Pakistan. Today, Sindhi poetry continues to evolve, embracing new styles and themes while preserving its
rich cultural heritage.
Modern Sindhi Poetry: Evolution and Influential Poets
Modern Sindhi poetry evolved significantly with the contributions of several influential poets who
departed from traditional themes and embraced new styles and social messages.
Kishinchand "Bewas": Kishinchand "Bewas" is credited with initiating modern Sindhi poetry around
the time of partition in 1947. He introduced a fresh approach by focusing on themes of nature and social
issues. Bewas's poetry highlighted the plight of the downtrodden, advocating for social equality and
justice. His works like "Bewas Ji Kavita" and "Sheereen Shair" are celebrated for their socialistic themes,
addressing topics such as farmer's rights and the struggles of the poor.
Hundraj "Dukhayal": During Mahatma Gandhi's national movement, Hundraj "Dukhayal" emerged as a
prominent poet and singer. He composed poems that resonated with the themes of India's poverty, the
significance of the spinning wheel (Charkha), and Gandhi's messages of non-violence and dedication to
the motherland. His book "Sangeet Phool" is well-regarded for its impactful verses in both Sindhi and
Hindi, capturing the spirit of the independence movement.
Hari Dilgir and Lekhraj "Aziz": Hari Dilgir, akin to Sheikh Ayaz, contributed significantly to Sindhi
poetry with his prolific output and trend-setting style. Lekhraj "Aziz," on the other hand, blended old
Persian poetic traditions with contemporary themes. His poetry, found in works like "Kuliyat-i-Aziz" and
"Gulzar-i-Aziz," reflects a versatile approach that combines classical and modern influences, earning him
recognition as a notable literary figure.
Prof. M.U. Malkani and Dr. Sadarangani Khadam: Prof. M.U. Malkani's translations of Tagore's
works into Sindhi, particularly "Gardener" (Preet-ja-Geet) and "Geetanjali," are notable for their literary
merit and cultural significance. Dr. Sadarangani Khadam's poetry (Nazam) also stands out for its poignant
expression and thematic depth, contributing to the richness of modern Sindhi literature.
Drama in Sindhi Literature
Drama in Sindhi literature has a rich history dating back to the late 19th and early 20th centuries, marked
by significant playwrights and diverse themes. Dewan Kauromal translated the drama "Ratnavali" from
Sanskrit in 1888, showcasing early efforts to adapt classical texts into Sindhi. Shri Chandumal Khatri and
Kishenchand Bewas were notable playwrights who contributed greatly to Sindhi drama. Khatri's plays
were celebrated for their craftsmanship, while Bewas excelled with his drama "Manohar Nagin," blending
poetry and theatrical artistry.
In Hyderabad (Sindh), playwrights like Shri Nanikram Dharamdass Mirchandani, Lilaram Makhijani, and
Awatrai Thakur Das made significant contributions. Nanikram's play "Qoum-jo-Kalesh" addressed social
issues like dowry, while Lilaram Makhijani's plays such as "Kishore Mohini" and "Pavitre Sundari" were
highly regarded for their artistic merit. "Frebi Fitna," adapted from Marie Corelli's work, also gained
popularity in Sindhi drama circles.
Post-partition, Sindhi drama continued to thrive with playwrights like Prof M.U. Malkani, known for his
socially themed one-act plays. Jethanand N. Nagrani contributed with his "Gamtoo Series," depicting
various professions with humor and insight. The adaptation of international works, such as Marie Corelli's
novels, into Sindhi dramas highlighted the cultural exchange and adaptation within Sindhi theatrical
traditions.