MA6812 Advanced
Materials Engineering
ALLOY STEELS
AY2024-25 (S1) Sunil C. Joshi
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Alloy elements in steel
Steels - carbon steels and alloy steels
Carbon steels - Carbon is principal hardening agent.
Alloy steels - derive their principal properties from
elements other than carbon.
More than 600 alloy steels are in use today.
Cobalt - mechanical properties at high temperature.
Copper - corrosion resistance, machinability.
Chromium - Corrosion and wear resistance.
Molybdenum, titanium, vanadium - strength, wear resistance
and hardenability.
Nickel - hardenability and corrosion resistance.
Sulfur, lead - machinability.
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Stainless steel (SS) and Duplex SS
Steels containing at least 10% chromium are called
stainless steels, because they offer good corrosion
resistance (i.e. they do not rust). These alloys often have
improved resistance to high temperature.
Duplex stainless steel is a distinct class of stainless steel,
which possesses a two-phase microstructure;
• The dominant phases are austenite (γ) and ferrite (α).
• Both phases are present in substantial volume.
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Resistance to hot cracking
Single-phase, especially austenitic stainless steels, have high propensity of
hot cracking or solidification cracking.
Sulfur (S), phosphorus (P), Boron (B), Arsenic (As), Antimony (Sb) and Tin
(Sn) all promote hot cracking.
The presence of some ferrite suppresses hot cracking in austenitic stainless
steels, because it -
• helps minimize grain growth, increases grain boundary area, offer more
area to distribute harmful impurities over.
• helps reduce shrinkage stresses because of lower coefficient of thermal
expansion, higher thermal conductivity, and lower high temperature
strength.
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Crack-free hot working
With the elimination of Cr23C6 , crack-free hot working is
possible. The formation of cracks can be avoided by
lowering the carbon content or by adding Ti to tie up
carbides as TiC, thereby preventing the formation of
Cr23C6.
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Age hardening
In a duplex stainless steel, the α-phase field contracts with
decreasing temperature.
Quenching to retain the α presents possibility of age
hardening via γ precipitation at a lower temperature. The γ
precipitation is the hardening constituent.
This phenomenon has been used to advantage.
Possible to make up an alloy which is completely α at
temperatures above 12000C, but has an equilibrium γ + α
structure at lower temperatures.
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Mechanical properties
Yield strength of duplex stainless steel is greater than austenitic
stainless steel (400-500MPa vs. 200-250MPa)
The tensile strength is about the same.
The elongation is lower.
The toughness is a function of ferrite content, the orientation of
austenite-ferrite band and the cooling rate from the annealing
temperature. Most commercial alloys contain ~ 50% ferrite to
maintain a fairly good toughness.
If the ferrite content exceeds 60-70%, the Charpy impact energy
drops sharply.
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Resistance to SCC
The SCC (stress corrosion cracking) resistance of duplex
stainless steels is substantially higher than austenitic
stainless steels.
The critical stress for SCC failures in boiling MgCl2 and other
chloride-containing solutions is high for duplex stainless
steels.
These steels show good resistance to corrosion fatigue, a
property useful in rotating equipment and equipment
subjected to frequent thermal cycling.
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Resistance to IGC
IGC (Inter Granular Corrosion) depends primarily on the carbon
content and the proportions of ferrite and austenite in the
microstructure.
With low carbon content (<0.03%) and about equal amounts of α
and γ phases, it offers good IGC resistance.
Combines the toughness and weldability of ferrite with the
corrosion and SCC resistance, and strength of austenite.
Superior pitting corrosion resistance.
With 25% Cr & 3% Mo the alloy offers good resistance in seawater
at room and elevated temperatures.
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Applications
The optimal use is in the application of plate, bar and seamless
pipes requiring high strength and toughness.
Rapidly growing use of 2205 and AF 22 grades for production
tubing in corrosive oil and gas wells.
In petrochemical industries, used as welded pipes for handling
wet and dry CO2, and oil products.
Employed in chemical, electric power and other industries as
welded tubing for heat exchangers, for handling chloride-
containing coolants, brines (very salty solutions) and various
organic chemicals.
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HSLA or micro-alloy steels
HSLA (High Strength Low Alloy) steels are produced with
emphasis on mechanical property requirements with low
alloy content (<5%).
HSLA steels in their as-hot-rolled condition have yield
strengths in 290-550 MPa range and ultimate tensile
strengths in 415-700 MPa range.
Because of their low carbon content, they are generally
readily weldable.
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Strengthening and production
Strengthening mechanisms applied in HSLA steels include:
1. grain refinement
2. precipitation
3. dislocation substructure
4. solid solution strengthening
5. strain aging
Their production can involve:
1. alloying with small amounts of strong carbide
and nitride groups
2.&3. controlled rolling and cooling
4. inclusion shape control
The above factors can be used singly or in
combination to produce the desired properties.
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Grain refinement
The yield stress of mild steel is related to grain diameter.
with 0.04 mm grain dia. → yield stress is ~200 MPa.
with 0.007 mm grain dia. → yield stress is ~380 MPa.
Lower grain size → increased toughness.
decreased transition temperature.
Grain refinement in HSLA steels is accomplished by the addition of Nb, V,
Ti or Al.
Nb (C, N) are less soluble in austenite than V, Ti or Al carbides and
nitrides, hence grain refinement possible with small addition of Nb.
Ferrite grain refinement is accomplished by restricting the growth of
austenite grains during hot rolling.
Mild steel (carbon 0.05%-0.25%) can be transformed into high-strength low-alloy
(HSLA) steel with the addition of a few alloying elements
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Precipitation hardening
Studies show interphase precipitation.
Seen in steels containing Nb, V, W, Mo, Ti and Cr.
• Precipitate nucleation and growth occurs at γ-α
interfaces.
• Spacing of precipitate planes decreases as cooling rate
increases.
• Particles formed during interphase precipitation, or in
ferrite after phase transformation, can be very small
(order of 5 nm), and are very effective as strengthening
agents.
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Control of mechanical properties
Nb is most effective in controlling grain size because of the relatively
low solubility of NbC in austenite.
Al, V and Ti are effective in steels with high N because carbonitrides
form.
VC is more soluble (than NbC) in austenite and subsequently
precipitates during γ-α transformation. Thus, more effective in
raising yield strength by precipitation.
When Nb and V are used in combination - NbC provides grain
refinement while VC by precipitation raises yield strength.
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Practice MCQs
1. Austenitic stainless steels have a high propensity for
(a) Solidification cracking
(b) Stress corrosion cracking
(c) Warping
(d) Inter granular corrosion
2. Properties of HSLA steels are primarily controlled by
(a) Size of martensite structure
(b) Austenite phase
(c) Ferrite grain refinement
(d) Refinement of pearlite
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Dual phase HSLA steels
These steels are with structure of islands of martensite or
lower bainite in ferrite. They are of interest primarily to
users of high strength steel sheet, either hot or cold rolled.
A sheet is hot rolled, cold rolled, then continuously
annealed in the α + γ region (in the neighbourhood of
760°C), then cooled so that islands of austenite transform
to martensite or lower bainite.
A typical dual-phase HSLA steel could have 1.5%V.
Upper Bainite (feather like) Lower Bainite (needle like)
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Dual phase HSLA steels
These generally have low yield stress, continuous yielding, a
high rate of work-hardening, and a large uniform elongation.
A typical steel can have a yield strength of 370MPa, ultimate
tensile strength of 665MPa and a uniform elongation of 22%.
These are desirable characteristics for cold forming.
Dual-phase steels strengthen rapidly during deformation
because of their high work-hardening rate. They can be further
strengthened by strain-aging.
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Maraging steels
A special class of low carbon ultra-high strength steels
which derive their strength not from carbon but from
precipitation of inter-metallic compounds.
Original development was carried out on 20 and 25% Ni
steels to which small additions of Al, Ti and Nb were
made.
The common grades contain 17-19% nickel, 8-12% cobalt,
3-5% molybdenum and 0.2-1.6% titanium.
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Strengthening mechanism
Nickel forms the carbon free martensite matrix as well as
the intermetallics during aging.
Age-hardening agents: molybdenum and titanium.
Molybdenum forms Ni3Mo, which precipitates as rods and
prevents formation of harmful grain boundary
precipitates, that would otherwise degrade toughness.
Titanium forms Ni3Ti, Ni3 (Ti, Al), or Ni3 (Mo, Ti) and
renders extra hardening. Also aids in eliminating residual
carbon and nitrogen by forming Ti(C, N).
Maraging (a linguistic blend
of "martensitic" and "aging")
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Maraging steels: Salient features
i) Offer the best available combination of ultra-high yield
and tensile strength, ductility and fracture toughness of
any ferrous materials.
ii) Can retain strength at least up to 3500C.
iii) Being a very low-carbon martensite, the structure is
soft. Readily machinable. May be cold rolled to as much as
80 - 90% without cracking prior to aging treatment. Hot
deformation is also possible.
iv) Possible to finish-machine before aging. Very little
dimensional change after aging treatment.
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Maraging steels: Salient features
v) Parts uniformly harden throughout the entire section
because they have high hardenability.
vi) Exhibit good weldability. Properties of heat affected
zone (HAZ) can be restored by a post-weld aging
treatment.
vii) Since ductile FeNi martensites are formed upon
cooling, cracks are non-existent or negligible.
viii) Good corrosion, stress corrosion and hydrogen
embrittlement characteristics.
ix) Surface protection can be provided by cadmium plating
or phosphating or nitriding.
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Applications
For lightweight structures with ultra-high strength and
high toughness with cost as a minor concern.
Aerospace: large rocket-motor casings, load cells,
helicopter flexible drive shafts, jet-engine drive shafts,
shock absorber for Lunar Rover, landing gear, wing hinge
for swing-wing planes and so forth.
Tool manufacturing: drive shafts, pistons, springs, forging
and casting and molding dies. The higher grade, e.g. 18 Ni
2400, is primarily used for tools, tool fixtures, fasteners
and in bearings.
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