I.

LEARNERS WHO ARE GIFTED AND TALENTED

A. Definition

Learners who are gifted and talented are students with higher abilities
than average and are often referred to as gifted students. This group refers
to students whose talents, abilities, and potentials are developmentally
advanced. They require special provisions to meet their educational needs,
thus presenting a unique challenge to teachers. They often finish tasks
ahead and might ask for more creative tasks or exercises. Exciting and
energizing activities should be provided to continuously keep them
motivated. This group includes students with exceptional abilities from all
socio-economic, ethnic, and cultural populations. What is the difference then
between gifted and talented? The term giftedness refers to students with
extraordinary abilities in various academic areas. However, talent focuses
on students with extraordinary abilities in a specific area.

There is also another way to look into giftedness which is

conceptualized by Gardner in 1993. According to him, intelligence is
multifaceted.

Multiple Intelligences:

 Visual Spatial (Picture Smart)

 Verbal linguistic (Word Smart)
 Musical Rhythmic (Music Smart)
 Logical Mathematical (Logic Smart)
 Interpersonal (People Smart)
 Intrapersonal (Self Smart)
 Naturalistic ( Nature Smart)
 Bodily Kinesthetic (Body Smart)

B. Identification

To identify gifted and talented students, one must do the following:

 Locate the student’s domain of giftedness

 Describe the student’s level of giftedness
 Describe the student’s fields of talent

C. Learning Characteristics

Not all learners will exhibit the learning characteristics listed below
However, these are the common manifestations of gifted and talented
learners. One might possess a combination of characteristics in varying
degrees and amounts.

 High level of intellectual curiosity  Independence in learning

 Reads actively  Good comprehension of complex
 High degree of task commitment contexts
 Keen power of observation  Strong, well-developed
 Highly verbal imagination.
 Gets bored easily  Looks for new ways to do things
 Can retain and recall information  Often gives uncommon responses
 Excited about learning new to common questions
concepts

D. General Educational Adaptations.

Learners who are gifted and talented usually get bored since they have
mastered the concepts taught in classes. One thing that is common among
gifted students is that they are very inquisitive. Fulfilling their instructional
needs may be a challenging task. These are some suggested strategies for
teaching gifted students:

 Teachers may give enrichment exercises that will allow learners to

study the same topic at a more advanced level.
 Acceleration can let students who are gifted and talented can move at
their own pace thus resulting at times to in completing two grade
levels in one school year.
 Open-ended activities with no right or wrong answers can be provided,
emphasizing on divergent thinking wherein there are more possibilities
than pre-determined answers.
 Leadership roles can be given to gifted students since studies have
shown that gifted students are often socially immature.
 Extensive reading on subjects of their own interest may be coordinated
with the school librarian to further broaden their knowledge.
 Long-term activities may be provided, that will give the gifted students
an opportunity to be engaged for an extended period of time.

II. LEARNERS WITH DIFFICULTY SEEING

A. Definition

Students in the classroom will exhibit different level of clarity of

eyesight or visual acuity. There may be some students with red restricted
vision. Learners with difficulty seeing are those with issues regarding sight
that interfere with academics. The definition from individual with Disabilities
Education Act (IDEA) states that “an that, even with correction, adversely
affects a child’s educational which includes both partial sight and blindness.”
These students may need have their eyesight corrected by wearing glasses
or other optical devices.

B. Identification

Learners with difficulty seeing often have physical signs, such as

crossed eyes, squinting, and eyes that turn outwards. They may also be
clumsy, usually bumping into objects which causes them to fall down. They
like to sit near the instructional materials or at times would stand up and
near the visual aids.

Learners with difficulty seeing may also show poor eye-hang

coordination. This can be seen in their handwriting or poor performance in
sporting activities. Another indication is poor academic performance a these
students might have difficulty reading as well as writing.

C. Learning Characteristics

Good visual ability is critical in learning. Most school lessons are done
through blackboard writing, presentations, or handouts, in most major
subjects. Visual impairments, whether mild, moderate, or severe, affect the
student’s ability to participate in normal classroom activities. In the past,
students who are visually impaired are placed in special institutions
Nowadays, most are enrolled with other children who are not visually
Impaired.

Learners with difficulty seeing have restricted ways to learn

incidentally from their surroundings since most of them learn through visual
clues Because of this, the other senses are used to acquire knowledge. Due
to the limited ability to explore the environment, low motivation to discover
is present.

D. General Educational Adaptations

Modification in teaching is needed to accommodate students with

difficulty seeing. The following strategies may be considered.

 If the use of books is part of your lesson, students with difficulty seeing
should be informed ahead of time so that they can be ordered in braille
or in an audio recorded format.
  Portions of textbooks and other printed materials may be recorded so
that visually impaired students can listen instead of focusing on the
visual presentation.
 All words written on the board should be read clearly.
 Students with difficulty seeing should be seated near the board so that
they can easily move close to the instructional materials used during
the lesson.
 A buddy can be assigned to a student with difficulty seeing as needed.
This can be crucial to assist in the mobility of the student such as going
to the other places in school during the day.
 Students with difficulty seeing might need more time to complete a
task or homework. This might be on a case to case basis.
 Teachers should be aware of terminology that would require visual
acuity (such as over there or like this one) which the impaired student
may not possess.
 Teachers should monitor the students closely to know who needs extra
time in completing tasks.

III. LEARNERS WITH DIFFICULTY HEARING

A. Definition

This refers to students with an issue regarding hearing that interferes

with academics. The definition from Individuals with Disabilities Education
Act (IDEA) defines it as “an impairment in hearing, whether permanent or
fluctuating, that adversely affects a child’s educational performance but is
not included under the definition of ‘deafness”.” Deafness is considered
when hearing loss is above 90 decibels. A hearing loss below 90 decibels is
called hearing impairment.

The main challenge of hearing-impaired students is communication,

since most of them have varying ways of communicating. The factors
affecting the development of communication skills include intelligence,
personality, the degree and nature of deafness and residual hearing, family
environment, and the age of onset. The latter plays the most crucial role in
the development of language as those who have hearing loss present at
birth are more functionally disabled than those who lose hearing after
language and speech development.

B. Identification

To identify learners with difficulty hearing, observe a student and see if

he/she does the following items below.
  Speaking loudly
 Positioning ear toward the direction of the one speaking
 Asking for information to be repeated again and again
 Delayed development of speech
 Watching the face of the speaker intently
 Favoring one ear
 Not responding when called
 Has difficulty following directions
 Does not mind loud noises
 Leaning close to the source of sounds

C. Learning Characteristics
Since much of learning is acquired through hearing, students with
hearing problems have deficiencies in language and in their experiences.
Since they may miss out on daily conversations, they may miss crucial
information that non-hearing-impaired students learn incidentally. Students
may overcome these problems by investing time, energy, and combined
effort by both parents and educators.
Most learners with difficulty hearing use various methods of
communication. The most common is the use of hearing aids, combined with
lip-reading. These students are referred to as “oral” since they can
communicate thru speech as opposed to sign language. They might have
delayed communication skills since the development of vocabulary is slower.
They understand concepts when the sentence structure is simpler.
Interacting with students can be a challenge so they prefer to work on their
own. Some hearing-impaired students use note-takers in class since it is
difficult to lip- read and take notes simultaneously.

D. General Educational Adaptations

There is an assumption that the only adjustment for hearing impaired

students is to make all instructional materials and techniques in written
format. These are other ways to adapt to hearing-impaired students:

 Teachers should help students with difficulty hearing to use the

residual hearing they may have.
 Teachers should help students develop the ability for speech reading or
watching others’ lips, mouth, and expressions.
 Teachers should be mindful to face the class at all times when
presenting information while ensuring that the students with difficulty
hearing sit near them.
  Exaggerating the pronunciation of words should not be done for it just
makes it difficult for the student with difficulty hearing.
 Directions, as well as important parts of the lesson, should always be
written on the board.
 Written or pictorial directions instead of verbal directions may be
given.
 Steps to an activity may be physically acted out instead of verbally
given.
 A variety of multi-sensory activities should be given to allow the
students to focus on their learning strengths.
 Teachers should be more patient when waiting to hear a response from
a hearing-impaired student which may take longer than usual.

IV. LEARNERS WITH DIFFICULTY COMMUNICATING

Some learners are observed to have difficulty communicating, either verbally

expressing their ideas and needs and/or in understanding what others are
saying. Some may have had a clinical diagnosis of a disability while others
display developmental delays and difficulty in the speech and language
domain. To have a clearer understanding of students who have difficulty
communicating, we will begin with a definition of communication and its
accompanying concepts; how learners with communications difficulties are
identified, their learning characteristics, and ways how to help them manage
and become successful in an inclusive setting.

A. Definition: Types of Communication Impairments and

Disorders

Communication — The interactive exchange of information, I feelings,

needs, and desires between and among people (Heward. 2011)
Communication is used to serve several functions, particularly to narrate
explain, inform, request (mand), and express feelings and opinions.

Speak — The expression of language with sounds, or oral production,

Speech is produced through precise physiological and neuromuscular
coordination: (1) respiration (act of breathing), (2) phonation (production
of sound by the larynx and vocal folds), and (3) articulation (use of lips,
tongue teeth, and hard and soft palates to speak).

Language — Used for communication, a formalized code used by a group of

people to communicate with one another, that is primarily arbitrary (Heward,
2013). People decide on symbols, their corresponding meaning and rules
that make up a language.

There are five dimensions of language:

Phonology

Phonology refers to the sound system of a language. A phoneme

is the smallest unit of sound within a language. For instance, the word
dog is made up of three phonemes, namely /d/-/o/-/g/ while beans has
four phonemes, /b/-/ea/- /n/-/s/.

Morphology

Morphology of a language refers to the smallest unit of language

that has meaning and which are used to combine words. Sounds,
syllables, or whole words are examples of morphemes.

Syntax

Syntax is the system of rules governing the meaningful

arrangement of words, which also include grammar rules. For instance,
the sentence, Ready get for the exam does not make sense until
arranged in the right sequence as Get ready for the exam.

Semantics

Semantics refers to the meanings associated with and

combination of words in a language. This also include vocabulary,
concept development, connotative meanings of words, and categories

Pragmatics

Pragmatics revolves around the social use of language knowing

what, when, and how to communicate and use language in specific
context. There are three kinds of pragmatics skills: (1) using language
for different purposes (eg, narrating, explaining, requesting, etc.), (2)
changing language according to the context teg, talking to a peer as
compared to speaking to a well-respected professor). And (3) following
rules for conversations and story-telling (e.g., taking turns, rephrasing
when unclear, how to use facial expressions and eye contact, etc.)
(American Speech Language Hearing Association, 2011 cited in
Heward, 2013).

The different disabilities that are associated with communication disorders,

namely Speech Impairments and Language Disorders.
Speech Impairments — Are communication disorders such as stuttering,
impaired articulation, and language or voice impairment. Such disorders are
significant enough that they can adversely affect a student’s academic
performance. There are four basic types of speech impairments:
articulation, phonological, fluency, and voice disorder.

Articulation disorder

A child is unable to produce a given sound physically. Severe

articulation disorder may render a child’s speech unintelligible.
Examples are substitutions, omissions, distortions, and additions of
speech sounds.

Phonological Disorder

A child produces multiple patterns of sound errors patterns with

obvious impairment of intelligibility. There is also noted inconsistent
misarticulation of sounds.

Fluency Disorder

Difficulties with the rhythm and timing of speech. Stuttering is an

example marked by rapid-fire repetitions of consonant or vowel sounds
especially at the beginning of words, prolongations, hesitations,
interjections, and complete verbal blocks (Ramig & Shames, 2006 cited
in Gargiulo 2012).

Voice disorder

Problems with the quality or use of one’s voice resulting from

disorders of the larynx. Voice may be excessively hoarse, breathy, or
too high- pitched.

Language Disorders — Involve problems in one or more of the five

components of language and are often classified as expressive or receptive.
Language disorders are characterized by persistent difficulties in acquiring
use of language that result from deficits in comprehension that include
reduced vocabulary, limited sentence structure, and impairments in
discourse, that limit a child’s functioning (American Psychiatric Association
2013). To receive a diagnosis of language disorder, the difficulties must not
be due to an accompanying medical or neurological condition and other
developmental disability (i.e., intellectual disability or global developmental
delay).
There are different types of language disorder:

Expressive language disorder interferes with the production of

language. A child may have very limited vocabulary that impacts
communications skills or misuses words and phrases in sentences. On
the other

Receptive language disorder interferes with the understanding of

language. A child may have difficulty understanding spoken sentences
or following the directions a teacher gives.

Combination of receptive and expressive language disorder At

this point, it is also essential to mention that students with Autism
Spectrum Disorder (ASD) also display speech and language difficulties.
ASD is an umbrella term for related disorders that affect social
development and communication (Kirk et al. 2015). Students with ASD
display a triad of impairments in social relationships, social
communication, and social understanding. Other disorders that are
subsumed under ASD are Rett Syndrome, Pervasive Developmental
Disorder, and Asperger’s Syndrome. Oftentimes, students with ASD
display deficits in the pragmatic use of language that impact their
social relationships.

B. Identification

Communication difficulty is oftentimes one of the most common red

flags observed by family members, daycare workers, and early childhood
teachers. Noted absence, delays, and difficulties in speech and/or language
often prompt family members to consult their general pediatrician who then
makes referrals to developmental pediatricians and other specialists.

To screen children with communication difficulties, early childhood

professionals use questionnaires and developmental checklists to determine
the severity of the delay as compared with typical language development.
Upon screening, a child may receive educational supports and
accommodations to help address the delay. If the difficulty is pronounced,
referrals can already be made to developmental pediatrician and a speech
and language pathologist. At times, referrals are also made to an
occupational therapist if speech difficulty is resulting from motor problems.
 How do specialists determine a speech and/or language problem? A
comprehensive speech and language evaluation to determine the presence
of a communication disorder involves several components (Heward 2013).

 Case history and physical examination Assessment always begins

with the case history that provides the specialist the necessary
background about the child’s birth and developmental history, health
record, achievement test scores, and adjustment in school. The
specialist examines the child’s Orål-Peripheral Mechanism which
includes the mouth, noting irregularities in the tongue, lips, teeth,
palate, or other structures that may affect speech production.
 Hearing is tested to determine whether an organic hearing problem in
the suspected communication disorder, as discussed in the previous
section. Thus, hearing impairment needs to be treated to develop
speech and language skills.
 Articulation A child’s articulation skills are assessed, which includes
Identifying speech errors.
 Phonological awareness and processing skills provide the
foundation for beginning to read is young children (Adams 2013).
Children with difficulties in processing sounds in language as well as in
hearing, segmenting, and identifying phonemes in words may
experience problems with expressive receptive spoken language as
well as in learning how to read.
 Overall language development and vocabulary Formal tests may
be used measure a child’s overall language development and
vocabulary as these affect how well a child is able to understand and
use language in spontaneous speech and in academic settings.
 Assessment of Language function Language is used to serve
several functions such as to request, name, imitate, ask, and converse
among others. B. F. Skinner (Sundberg 2007 cited in Heward 2013),
emphasized how language is used rather than the structure and form
of language.
 Language sample and observation in natural settings Language
difficulties may also be identified through play-based, authentic
assessment where a specialist plays with a child during which
spontaneous speech and verbalizations can be elicited. Observations in
natural settings, such as a child’s home or school, allows the specialist
to sample the child’s language in daily activities and observe parent
and child interaction and communication as part of holistic
 assessment. These are used to supplement assessment information
gathered in clinical settings.

Assessments in speech, language, and communication must take into

consideration the student’s cultural and language context, particularly for
children growing up in bilingual environments. At this point, it is essential to
differentiate English Language Learners (ELL) from children with diagnosed
communication disorder. ELLs are proficient in their mother tongue or first
language in both expressive and receptive language tasks; on the other
hand, they display difficulties in understanding and speaking the second
language, such as English. In a multi-cultural setting, knowing the child’s first
and second language aids teachers and language specialists to determine
the possible sources of communication difficulties and plan for needed
supports and interventions.

C. Learning Characteristics

Children with communication disorders frequently struggle across

social settings, whether at home, school, or in other places in the community.

Expressive Language Difficulties Receptive Language Difficulties

Limited vocabulary Following oral directions

Incorrect grammar or syntax Understanding humor or figurative
Expressive repetition of information language
Difficulty in formulating questions Comprehending compound and
Difficulty constructing sentences complex sentences
Responding to questions
appropriately
Children with communication disorders may also experience behavioral
difficulties. Because they struggle in expressing their needs and ideas, some
children resort to inappropriate behaviors out of frustration or to get the
attention of significant others. For instance, a five-year old child with
expressive language disorder may resort to grabbing toys and hitting his
peers who try to take the toy he was playing with the day before. While
typically developing children will be able to say, “May I please borrow?” or
“It’s my turn now,” a child with communication difficulties may not be able to
utter these accurately and instead resort to using actions resulting to
physical aggression. Thus, it is essential that teachers and professionals take
this into consideration when working with children with communication
disorders and difficulties. Such feelings of frustration may even become
worse when peers or adults are unable to understand them (Gregg 2016).
 Despite these language difficulties, children with communication
disorders are known to have their own strengths and abilities. This can be
best understood using the theory of multiple intelligences (Gardner 1983
cited in Armstrong 2012), as explained in Chapter 5, that shows the different
strengths and abilities children have. In Gardner’s theory, children may have
abilities in different areas or domains, which makes it necessary for parents
and teachers to provide opportunities for such strengths and abilities to be
displayed. Children with communication disorders may have limitations in
the linguistic and interpersonal areas but may possess good spatial, musical,
and bodily-kinesthetic abilities. In other words, a child may struggle with
communication but can be very good in playing musical instruments, be very
creative and artistic, and/or excel in sports. As parents, teachers, and
practitioners, knowing a student’s strength and highlighting such abilities in
an inclusive classroom is as important as knowing and understanding his/her
communication disorder.

D. General Educational Adaptations

Different strategies and accommodations may be used to provide a

level playing field for children with communication difficulties or disorders
This section discusses the use of Universal Design for Learning (UDL) and
practical tips to be used in the classroom.

1. Universal Design for Learning

Use of UDL in the classroom allows children to learn information,

demonstrate understanding, and stay engaged in multiple ways ü.e, multiple
means of presentation, expression, and engagement) Because of
weaknesses resulting from communication difficulties or disorders, teaching
and learning practices as well as assessment should be presented in different
modalities, such as visual, auditory, and kinesthetic-motor or tactile. This
means that lessons are presented through various means, such as using
pictures and/or videos and hands- on experiential learning, and not solely by
passive approaches such as reading from textbooks, lectures, and teacher-
directed discussions. Presenting learning activities in this manner gives
children with communication difficulties or disorders the opportunity to use
their strengths and stronger modalities to compensate for their weaknesses
and a chance to be successful in an inclusive classroom.

2. Practical Tips for the Classroom

 In addition to using UDL, there are practical tips and techniques that
teachers can use to provide students with communication difficulties the
support they need in order to be successful. The following list provides
practical suggestions that teachers can use in the classroom. These
suggestions are best implemented in a classroom that promotes a supportive
and respectful culture, one that acknowledges and accepts diversity, and
allows accommodations for learners with difficulties.

1. Allow the child to sit near the teacher and the blackboard, away from
auditory and visual distractions such as the window and the door.
2. Get the child's attention before giving directions. Call the child's name or
use a pre-arranged signal (e.g., tap on the table or hand on the shoulder)
to help the child focus and listen to the directions.
3. Use pictures, charts, and other visual aids when explaining content to
supplement auditory information
4. Speak slowly and clearly without exaggerating speech
5. Simplify directions into short steps. Break down multi-step directions and
give each one at a time instead of just repeating each one
6. Provide a written copy of directions for a task on the child can refer back to
it at his/her own pace.
7. Use gestures to clarify information.
8. Use peer-mediated instruction so that peers without difficulties can serve
as language models and learning buddies.
9. Provide extra time to prepare for oral language activities. Do not call
children with communication difficulties/disorders to recite first in class.
Call other typically developing children first to serve as language models.
10. Model correct language forms and use appropriate wait times (3-5
seconds or more) to give the child time to think and respond.
11. Explicitly teach vocabulary that is needed in the learning context to
promote better comprehension.

V. LEARNERS WITH DIFFICULTY MOVING/WALKING

The previous section presented the strengths, difficulties, limitations,

and educational strategies in working with and helping children with
difficulties/disorders in communication. This section now focuses on learners
with difficulty moving and/or walking, thus focusing on physical and motor
disabilities, their learning characteristics, abilities, and the support they need
in an inclusive classroom.

A. Definition
 When a child has difficulty moving and/or walking, the physical domain
of development is affected. Examples of physical disability are
developmental coordination disorder or dyspraxia, stereotypic movement
disorder, tics and cerebral palsy. Each one is defined in the succeeding
sections.

Developmental coordination disorder as described in the DSM-5

(American Psychiatric Association 2013), refers to significant and persistent
deficits in coordinated motor skills that are significantly below expected
typical development. Difficulties are manifested as clumsiness (e.g.,
dropping or bumping into objects), slowness, and inaccuracy of motor skills
(e.g..catching an object, using scissors or cutlery, handwriting, riding a bike,
or participating in sports). These observed deficits impact academic
performance and other activities of daily living, which do not result from
intellectual disability, visual impairment, or any neurological condition
affected movement (e.g.. cerebral palsy). Dyspraxia, used synonymously
with developmental coordination disorder, is a term often used by
occupational therapists.

Another type of motor problem, Stereotypic movement disorder, is

characterized by repetitive, seemingly driven, and nonfunctional motor
behavior (e.g., hand shaking or waving, body rocking, head banging, self.
Biting, hitting own body). These behaviors interfere with social, academic, or
other activities and may result in self-harm or injury (American Psychiatric
Association 2013). Such motor behaviors do not result from any other
neurodevelopmental or mental disorder.

Cerebral Palsy refers to a disorder of movement and posture that

results from damage to the areas of the brain that control motor movement
(Kirk et al. 2015). This damage to the brain can occur before, during, or after
birth due to an accident or injury. Muscle tone (tension in the muscles)
affects voluntary movement and full control of the muscles that results in
delays in the child’s gross and fine motor development. There are different
classifications of cerebral palsy, depending on which parts of the body are
affected and the nature of the effects on muscle tone and movement. The
term plegia, from the Greek word meaning “to strike,” is used with a prefix
that indicate the location of limb movement.

Classifications of cerebral palsy:

Monoplegia — Only one limb is affected (upper or lower)

Hemiplegia — Two limbs on the same side of the body affected

 Triplegia — Three limbs are affected

Quadriplegia — All four limbs, both arms and legs, are affected;
movement of the trunk and face may also be impaired.

Diplegia — Legs are affected, less severe involvement of the arms

Double hemiplegia — Impairment primarily involves the arms, less

severe involvement of the legs

B. Identification

Developmental Coordination Disorder. Identifying children with motor

difficulties begins with family members and early childhood practitioners.
Upon noticing that their child is showing difficulties and delays in fine and/or
gross motor movements, parents oftentimes consult their general
pediatrician who in turn may refer them to other specialists such as a
developmental pediatrician, a physical therapist, or an occupational
therapist. Some signs that a child may have developmental coordination
disorder, that is more than just typical difficulty in moving or walking, are
presented in Table 6.5 (Nordqvist 2017).

Developmental Stage:

Early Childhood Difficulty in tying shoelaces, buttoning, using spoon

and fork, and getting dressed; problems in jumping, skipping, catching,
and kicking a ball; a higher tendency to bump into things, to fall over,
or to drop things

School age The difficulties in early childhood become more

pronounced; tries to avoid sports; works on writing tasks for a longer
period of time in comparison to typically developing peers

In conducting an assessment, a specialist determines the child’s

developmental history, intellectual ability, and gross and fine motor skills. To
differentiate between the two, gross motor skills involve the use of large
muscles in the body to coordinate body movement, which includes throwing,
jumping, walking, running, and maintaining balance. On the other hand, fine
motor skills involve the use of smaller muscles that are needed in activities
like writing, cutting paper, tying shoelaces, and buttoning.

The evaluator needs to know when and how developmental milestones

are achieved. Assessment is conducted to check the child’s balance,
sensitivity to touch, and performance in other gross and fine motor activities
(Nordqvist 2017). Oral motor coordination in doing activities like blowing
kisses or blowing out hirthday candles may also be reported. Moreover, an
evaluator will check for the following: (1) strength and flexibility by palpating
muscle bulk and texture, assessing flexibility of joints, and the quality and
intensity of grasp and (2) motor planning which includes observing functional
fine and gross motor skills and determining hand dominance or lack thereof
(Harris et al. 2015).

Stereotypic Movement Disorder. Similar steps are followed in the

identification of the presence of Stereotypic Movement Disorder (SMD)
among children. Typically developing children may display stereotypic
movements, or behaviors, often referred to as stereotypies, between
ages two and five as well as children with other neurological conditions
such as Autism Spectrum Disorder and other developmental
disabilities. Because of this, specialists classify SMD as “primary” when
it occurs in an otherwise typically developing child, or “secondary” if it
exists alongside other neurological disorders (Valente et al. 2019).

C. Learning Characteristics

Motor difficulties and disabilities are known to significantly affect a

child’s ability to perform daily activities, which include memory, perception
and processing, planning, carrying out coordinated movements. Speech may
also be affected as motor control is needed in articulation and production.
Moreover, developmental coordination disorder also affects psychosocial
functioning as children report to have lower levels of self-efficacy and
competence in physical and social domains, experience more symptoms of
being depressed and anxious, as well as display externalizing behaviors
(Harris et al. 2015). Children with stereotypic movement disorder also tend
to have low self-esteem and have been reported to be withdrawn (Valente et
al. 2019).

On the other hand, a “range of strengths” needs to be acknowledged in

every child with a disability (Armstrong 2012). Students with motor/
movement disorders may excel in other areas of intelligences that are not
controlled by motor functions. They may have adequate intelligence,
creativity, and language skills depending on the severity of the disorder and
the presence of a supportive adult. In fact, some children and adults who are
physically handicapped or have cerebral palsy have learned to paint with
their mouths or feet to compensate for their rigid limbs and have done so
successfully. Some children may do well in logical thinking and
comprehension and even in writing using assistive technology. Hence, for
children with motor difficulties and disabilities, support systems are needed
to ensure that they are given equal opportunities to access learning
experiences in school alongside their typically developing peers.

D. General Educational Adaptations

First and foremost, children with motor difficulties and disabilities need
primary intervention with specialists such as physical and occupational
therapists. These professionals are responsible for setting goals in motor
development, planning, and mobility as well as in providing teachers and
others with information about the child’s physical conditions. Limitations.
And abilities (Kirk et al. 2015).

Physical accessibility of a school and classrooms to children with motor

difficulty/disability is essential. Ramps and elevators for schools with multiple
levels of buildings is necessary, as well as the provision of wheelchairs.
Providing such structures and supports ensure that children with motor
difficulty/disability would be able to access as well as move around the
classroom safely.

The type of accommodations given will always be relative to the

strengths, abilities, and difficulties of the child. For a child with
developmental coordination or stereotypic movement disorder who struggles
or is unable to write but has adequate articulation and language skills,
he/she may benefit from being given accommodations in the way
understanding is demonstrated (ie, response). Some of the
recommendations for a child with such a profile may include the following:
(1) assigning an adult or a peer to be a scribe when accomplishing written
tasks may be an option and (2) being given a pencil or pen grip and different
size/ diameter for a pencil for those with poor fine-motor control.

Types of Accommodations Description

  Assign a peer/adult as scribe
for note- taking

 Use different sizes of paper

and graph paper to align
numbers
Response
 Try different writing tools and
pencil grips

 Use a word
processor/computer

 Use text-to-speech programs

 Allow for oral recitation/test-

taking to supplement written
tests

 Provide alternate assessment

methods

 Allow for preferential seating

near the teacher
 Adjust chair and/or desk
Setting height to maximize posture
and stability
 Place a non-skid mat on the
chair
 Provide opportunities for
movement breaks
 Allow for extra time to
complete tests and writing
Schedule assignments

 Provide extra time to change

for physical education
 Photocopy notes and
homework reminders for the
child

 Allow to take photos of notes

Others and homework reminders

 Give advance organizers

 before a lesson/lecture to
lessen/remove

writing task Send lecture


handouts via email
VI. LEARNERS WITH DIFFICULTY REMEMBERING AND FOCUSING

In this section, we will learn about students who find it difficult to remember
lessons, concepts, and even instructions as well as those who find it a
challenge to sustain their focus.

A. Definition

The International Classification of Functioning, Disability, and Health of the

World Health Organization (2001) provides definitions of specific mental
functions and focusing. Memory functions include short-term memory,
long- term memory, and retrieval, while attention functions include
sustaining, shifting, dividing, and sharing attention. Santrock (2011) also
provides a description of each of these functions (see Table 6.7).
Understanding these concepts is necessary to have a clearer picture of how
to enable learners with such difficulties to succeed and how to provide
support in an inclusive setting.

Memory Function — involves encoding, storage, and retrieval of

information over time

Short-term memory — Mental resources that allow for storing

information temporarily, for only approximately 30 seconds, after
which is lost if strategies are not used to integrate them into long-term
memory ([Link] a 7-digit landline number for a moment to
be able to write it down).

Long-term memory — Mental resources that allow for storing

information for a long period of time.

Retrieval — Mental resources used to recall information stored in

long-term memory

Attention Function — involves focusing of mental resources on a stimulus

for a required time period.

Sustained Attention— Mental resources used to maintain attention

for an extended period also called vigilance (e.g., staying focused while
reading a chapter in a classical novel without any interruptions until it
is finished).
 Selective Attention — Mental resources that allow for focusing on a
specific stimulus that is important while ignoring others (e.g., focusing
on the voice of a lecturer amidst the noise of a group of used to
refocus concentration from one stimulus to another).

Dividing Attention — Mental resources that involves focusing on ore

more activities or tasks simultaneously (e.g., listening to music while
driving).

Students with Learning Disability (LD) and/or Attention Deficit

Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) are characterized by having difficulties with
memory and attention functions. The subsequent sections present the
definition, identification, and learning characteristics for each disability.

1. LD

It was Samuel Kirk who coined the term, “learning disability in 1962 when he
met with parents and families as they discussed about students who
encountered pronounced difficulties in school despite having average to
above average intelligence. He further described students with learning
disabilities as a heterogeneous mix of learners who all had neurologically-
based problems that affected their learning in different ways (Kirk et al.,
2015).

To better understand learning disabilities, Gargiulo (2012) provided common

components on the definitions of a LD:

 Intellectual functioning within normal range

 Significant gap or discrepancy between a student's assumed potential
and actual achievement
 Inference that LD is not primarily caused by other disabilities or
extrinsic factors
 Difficulty in learning in one or more academic areas
 Presumption of CNS dysfunction.

These components are also found in the definition provided by the National
Joint Commission on Learning Disabilities (1990):

The term Learning Disability is differentiated from Specific Learning

Disability which focuses on difficulties in “one or more basic psychological
processes involved in understanding or in using language, spoken, or written,
which may manifest as difficulties in the ability to listen, think, spark, read,
write, spell, or do mathematical calculations” (Individuals with Disabilities
Education Act, 1997 in Hallahan, 2014, p. 168). Thus, the term Learning
Disability is a general term under which other difficulties are subsumed.

There are different types of specific learning disabilities for each type
of difficulty namely, Dyslexia for difficulties with reading, spelling, and oral
reading fluency; Dyscalculia for difficulties in math computation, problem-
solving, and analysis; and Dysgraphia for difficulties with handwriting and
written expression

Types of difficulty:

Dyslexia — Characterized by difficulties with ac curate and/or fluent

word recognition and by poor spelling and word reading abilities that
result from a deficit in phonological processing abilities. The difficulties
are often unexpected in relation to other cognitive abilities and the
provision of effective classroom Instruction (IDA 2002). Limited
vocabulary and background knowledge as well as problems in reading
comprehension may result as secondary consequences (Shaywitz
2003).

Dyscalculia — A specific learning disability that affects how students

acquire and develop their arithmetic skills despite average intelligence
(Shalev 2011) and may manifest as difficulty in retrieval of math facts
and understanding number concepts or using symbols or functions.

Dysgraphia — A specific learning disability that affects the

development of writing abilities which may display as spelling, hand-
writing, and expressive writing difficulties resulting from problems in
organizing and putting thoughts on paper (NCLD 2007 cited in LD
Online 2019).

2. ADHD

DSM-5 (American Psychiatric Association 2013) provides the diagnostic

criteria for ADHD, which include inattention, hyperactivity and impulsivity,
and a combination of the two. For a child to be diagnosed with ADHD, the
observed behaviors should meet the following criteria:
  Display a persistent pattern for at least 6 months that significantly
interferes with functioning or development
 Observed in two or more settings (e.g., at home, school, work; with
friends or relatives; and in other activities)
 Several of the symptoms were present before the age of 12 years.
 The behaviors are not resulting from other disorders (schizophrenia,
anxiety disorder, personality disorder, etc.)

Inattention

 Does not pay attention to details and works in a haphazard manner

resulting in careless mistakes (eg., school tasks, at work, in other
activities)
 Finds it difficult to sustain attention in tasks
 Easily distracted and sidetracked by extraneous stimuli
 Often does not follow through on instruction and fails to finish
schoolwork, chores, or duties in the workplace
 Appears not to listen or distracted when spoken to directly
 Has difficulty following instructions resulting in unfinished work
 Shows a tendency to be forgetful in daily tasks and routines
 Has problems in organizing tasks and activities
 Tends to lose things that are needed for schoolwork and other activities

Hyperactivity and Impulsivity

 Often restless and fidgety and cannot seem to stay still while sitting
down
 Often stands from seat to roam around the room
 Often runs around or climbs in situations when sitting is required
 Often rather talkative, interrupts in conversations, and blurts responses
 Finds it difficult to wait for one’s turn in tasks and activities
 Impulsive with words and actions
 May struggle in following instructions and rushes through tasks

B. Identification

Identifying students with LD and ADHD begins with the parents and teachers.
The presence of difficulties in mental functions provided in Table 6.8 and the
behaviors enumerated in Table 6.9, as well as meeting the provided criteria
for persistence and constetency in more than one setting, may create the
impetus for parents to consult specialists and for teachers to apply pre
referral strategies before referring the student for special education testing

1. LD

In identifying students with LD., a discrepancy between academic

achievement and Intelligence needs to be established using tests that
measure intelligence and standardized achievement tests. Children with LD
oftentimes display average to above average intelligence but perform below
their grade placement in achievement tests of reading, spelling, math, and
written expression. The problem, however, in identifying children with LD is
establishing the discrepancy as there is no clear description or level of
discrepancy to occur for a student to be diagnosed to have LD (Gargiulo
2012).

Specific learning disabilities, do not adhere to the achievement-

potential discrepancy. In its place, what is measured is the discrepancy
between the current level of skills (le., reading. Spelling, math, written
expression) and the expected grade level performance in achievement tests
in reading, spelling, oral reading fluency, and math. This discrepancy needs
to be established to ascertain that the underlying difficulties emanate from
the disability and not due to other contributory factors. To create a holistic
picture of the learner, observations, and interviews with parents and
teachers are essential.

2. ADHD

There are four components that are needed in identifying students with
ADHD: (1) medical examination, (2) clinic interviews, (3) use of teacher and
parent rating scales, and (4) behavioral observations (Hallahan et al. 2014).
Each one is discussed as follows.

Medical examinations are needed to rule out the presence of

sensory impairment or middle ear infections that can cause hearing
problems. That may be the underlying cause of the inattentive and/or
hyperactive behaviors also need to be ruled out (Barkley & Edwards
2006 cited in Hallahan et al. 2014

Clinic Interview with the parentis provides the specialists with a

holistic perspective of the child and essential information about the
student's physical and psychological characteristics, family and
cultural background, and peer relationships. An ecological approach in
assessment is necessary to rule out other contributing factors, like
 drastic changes in family dynamics such as separation of parents,
unexpected deaths, and others that may be causing the observed
behaviors of inattention and/or hyperactivity.

Teacher and parent rating scales used as additional tools to

provide evidence of the student’s inattention, hyperactivity, and/or
combination of the two. Standardized rating scales, such as the
Conners Rating Scales (Conners 2007 cited in Hallahan et al. 2014),
are used by clinical psychologists and special education diagnosticians
to identify the presence of ADHD in a student. The rating scale
measures the following behaviors: hyperactivity, aggressive behavior,
violent tendencies, compulsive behaviors, perfectionism, difficulty in
class, extra trouble with math, difficulty with language, social issues,
emotional distress, and separation anxiety (Johnson 2018). The
teachers’ and parents’ responses to the rating scales are based on
their daily observations of the student for the past six months in their
respective settings (home, school, or workplace).

C. Learning Characteristics

Oftentimes, learning characteristics refer to the difficulties and

challenges experienced by students with LD and ADHD. While these are also
essential to determine possible accommodations and interventions, it is
equally important to present their strengths and abilities alongside their
challenges as these can be used to help create a positive niche for students
(Armstrong 2012).

Students with LD are known to have challenges in language, literacy,

and memory (Kirk et al. 2015) as well as in math, writing, and
focusing/attending skills. Nonetheless, it is important to note that these are
merely general characteristics as there are individual differences in terms of
abilities and difficulties among children with LD and ADHD.

In language development, they often display delays in learning how

to speak, have difficulties in naming objects and retrieving words from
memory, and have limited vocabulary in comparison to typically developing
peers. Students with LD oftentimes struggle with having to organize their
thoughts that they are unable to use precise words to express their ideas. On
the other hand, there are students with LD who are better of oral expression
in relation to their reading and writing skills. Such students are better at
expressing themselves, at times rather fluently. But are unable to transfer
their thoughts to writing
 In terms of reading skills, students with dyslexia display delays and
difficulties in phonological processing, word reading decoding, spelling, and
oral reading fluency. Fundamental to reading is phonological awareness, or
the knowledge that all words can be segmented into phonemes (sounds) and
that the letters is a written word correspond to these sounds. Individuals with
dyslexia have pour phonological awareness that subsequently impedes word
reading ability, fluency, and accuracy. This basic weakness, then, blocks
access to higher-order language processes and to gaining meaning from text.
Thus, problems with comprehension may be attributed to inaccurate
decoding and lack of oral reading fluency, but they can use higher-level skills
of vocabulary, reasoning, problem-solving, concept formation, and general
intelligence (Shaywitz 2003)

In terms of written language, students with LD have tendencies to

reverse letters or words, have poor spelling skills and display difficulties in
the quality, organization, sentence fluency, and application of writing
conventions, including handwriting, spelling, and grammar, as well as
motivation to write (Graham 20171

As for math skills, the difficulties manifest in relation to students’ age

and grade (Shalev 2004). For instance, students in the first-grade level have
problems in the retrieval of basic math facts and in computing exercises,
while older children display severe difficulties in learning the multiplication
table and understanding algorithms of the four basic operations (addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division). Moreover, they are known to have
incomplete or inadequate procedural knowledge of algorithms, which are
reflected in the way they misuse or substitute arithmetic sign, forgetting to
regroup, misplacing digits, not following the proper alignment of digits when
solving, or solving from left to right. As a result, students with LD struggle
with more complex math equations and problems as they lack the
foundational arithmetic skills.

Anchoring on neurodiversity, children with LD and ADHD also have

their strengths and abilities amidst such difficulties and limitations. Students
with LD are known to have strong artistic abilities and visual-spatial skills. As
a result, they oftentimes display unusual skills in drawing, doing mechanical
puzzles, as well as in building models. Moreover, they are known to be
creative, divergent thinkers, imaginative, and highly curious. For instance, a
famous person with dyslexia is Charles Schwab, founder of Charles Schwali
Corporation, who attributes his success to his dyslexia. He only learned he
had dyslexia when he was 40 years old after his son was diagnosed with the
same condition. Despite being excellent in economies and business, he
narrated that he would sound out words to understand them when he was
younger and that he would still struggle in understanding books about topics
unfamiliar to him. But because of his dyslexia, he was able to think of out-of-
the-box solutions.

In relation to this, Shaywitz (2003) presented a "Sea of Strengths Model

of Dyslexia," where weakness in decoding is compensated through other
strengths such as reasoning, concept formation, comprehension, general
knowledge. problem-solving, vocabulary, critical thinking, and reasoning
abilities. This is the reason why students with dyslexia are oftentimes active
in class recitations and projects but struggle with literacy tasks that involve
reading and writing stemming from their phonological deficits.

D. General Educational Adaptations

The use of Universal Design for Learning (UDL) principles, such as providing
multiple means of representation, expression, and engagement are effective
for all types of learners and provide a level playing field for students with LD,
SLD, and ADHD (see Table 6.11) Through a variety of approaches, students
with difficulty remembering and focusing are given opportunities to
compensate for their weaknesses and use their strengths to learn as much
as their typically developing peers.

UDL Principle:

 Multiple means of representation

 Multiple means of expression
 Multiple means of engagement

In addition to UDL, an approach that has been proven to be effective

for students with memory and focusing difficulties is the use of explicit
instruction of literacy skills, comprehension, and writing strategies. Such
approach uses a step-by-step instruction that includes modeling, providing
guided practice, as well as independent practice, while giving immediate
corrective feedback so students will understand what and how to improve.
Part of this approach is the use of think-aloud to model concrete steps in
problem-solving, such as how to attack an unfamiliar word, how to begin a
writing task through brainstorming, and how to begin answering a math word
problem.

For instance, students with dyslexia and struggling readers benefit

from the direct/explicit approach in phonological processing, phonics
instructions, and spelling rules. Because of their reading and spelling
difficulties, learning through mere visual approach will not be effective. They
may remember the words now, as they are processed in their short-term
memory, but Hirger them by tomorrow, because the words were not stored in
their long term memory. Along with other accompanying difficulties. Gough
(1999 in Magpurs Levell et al. 2014) demonstrated that explicit instruction in
phonemic awareness and phonics was essential to develop a firm
understanding of the alphabetic principles. Another meta-analysis conducted
by Galuschks et al. (2014) found that phonics instruction is the most
intensively investigated treatment approach and the only one that has been
found to be effective and statistically confirmed in improving the reading and
spelling performance of children and adolescents with reading disabilities

Moreover, planning the classroom environment and how routines are

implemented is equally important in an inclusive classroom. Because
students with LD and ADHD show a tendency to be restless, become
hyperactive, and have short attention spans, providing a classroom that is
highly structured and with clear expectations is essential. Class rules and
norms, agreements, routines as well as schedules need to be written and
accompanied by clear and simple images. These need to be explained,
displayed, and implemented consistently to make the classroom
environment structured and safe for all children

One intervention that has been reported to be effective in helping

students with ADHD is the use of the Daily Report Card (DRC), which is an
Individualized intervention to manage target behaviors of a child (Moore et
al.2016). It begins with an assessment through observation and teacher/
parent interviews to determine specific behaviors that need to be managed
and/or developed in a student (see Figure 6.2). Once identified, the target
behaviors are framed positively, and teachers monitor the student’s progress
on the DRC throughout the day by recording whether the targets have been
met. A system of reinforcements and consequences is developed with the
child. Reinforcements can be in the form of tangible rewards such as stickers,
stamps, puzzles, etc. but they can also be opportunities to do certain
activities in school, such as having extra time in the classroom or library,
having an extra book to borrow, being the leader for the day, being the
teacher’s lunch buddy, and other activities. Parents are also included in the
planning and implementation to promote home-school communication and
collaboration. In this manner, generalization of behaviors is targeted to the
home setting or Vice-versa. A meta-analysis of DRC literature from 2007-
2017 yielded results that ranged from weak to strong impact on the
academic and social behavior of elementary students who were noted to
have disruptive behaviors as well as the ones diagnosed with disabilities
(Riden et al. 2018). The study found important components that the DRC
should have to make it effective: (1) clear and operationalized target
behaviors, (2) provide feedback to the student about his/her behavior, and
(3) providing home-school communication.

Types of Accommodations:

 Presentation
 Response
 Setting
 Scheduling
 Behavior management

VII. LEARNERS WITH DIFFICULTY WITH SELF-CARE

This section presents another set of learners with specific differ in self-care,
or caring for oneself.

A. Definition

Self-care often refers to a person’s capacity to perform daily living

activities or specific to body care such as the following skills washing oneself,
brushing teeth, combing, trimming nails, toileting, dressing, serving drinking,
and looking after one’s health. Self-care skills are gradually learned by very
young typically developing children through adult modeling and direct
instruction within developmental expectations. On the other hand, children
with additional needs may struggle with the basic activities of daily living.
Oftentimes, such students are those with moderate to severe cognitive
deficits, including individuals with Intellectual Disability or Intellectual
Developmental Disorder (ID or IDD).

Intellectual disability is a developmental disorder that includes deficits

in intellectual and adaptive functioning across domains of conceptual, social,
and practical that occur during the developmental period. To be diagnosed
with ID/IDD, a student must have deficits in both the cognitive and adaptive
domains (Kirk 2015). Children with Down’s syndrome with moderate to
severe disability may also have problems with self-care.
 B. Identification

Young children suspected to have cognitive deficits which manifest as

difficulties with self-care can be identified at a very young age. The
traditional approach to measuring levels of severity of ID was determined
through the use of intellectual tests:

 Mild level IQ 50-70

 Moderate IQ 35-50
 Severe IQ 20-35
 Profound IQ below 20

C. Learning Characteristics

Students who have difficulty with self-care oftentimes reach developmental

milestones at a later age compared to typically developing peers. They learn
to sit up, crawl, walk, and talk later than other children and may have trouble
remembering and understanding consequences st actions. Due to cognitive
difficulties, children with ID may also have deficits in the areas of reasoning,
planning, judgment, and abstract thinking.

On the other hand, depending on the level of support needed, a student with
ID learns adaptive skills at a slower pace, resulting in delay, compared to
same aged typically developing students. They benefit from modeling and
can imitate well. Moreover, adults with mild intellectual disability eventually
learn to be functional and independent in society.

Youths with intellectual disabilities are known to be friendly, sociable and are
reported to have positive coping skills. A study conducted by Carter et al.
(2015) investigated the strengths and positive traits of transition- age youth
with intellectual disability and/or autism, as reported by their parents. Using
quantitative and qualitative measures, the study yielded the following
positive traits of the youths: (1) they have a positive outlook in life, (2) shows
positive relations with others, (3) have active coping skills, and (4) have
acceptance coping skills. In this study, they found that the youths were rated
highest in items pertaining to the positive outlook factor.

These results suggest the importance of having to find the strengths in

children with additional needs, make them aware of these strengths, and use
them to their advantage.

D. General Educational Adaptations

Specific approaches have been found to be effective in teaching students
with difficulty with self-care, namely the use of direct/explicit instruction, task
analysis, forward and backward chaining, as well as the use of video
modeling. It is essential that the instructions given are simple and straight
forward and that hands-on, experiential activities are used.

Task analysis is a behavioral approach that breaks down a complete behavior

or task into step-by-step procedures, thereby providing modeling and ample
practice for the student with difficulties. Gargado 2012 provided working
guidelines on how to do task analysis

 Define the target behavior or task.

 Identify the required skills needed to successfully complete the task.
 Identify the necessary materials to perform the task.
 Observe an able and competent person perform the task.
 List the needed steps in sequential order to complete the task

Forward and backward chaining is used alongside task analysis. In

forward chaining, the program begins with the first step in the sequence,
such as getting the toothbrush and toothpaste, then providing the needed
hand-over-hand assistance, and then gradually fading verbal and then
gestural prompts. The goal is to allow the student to master the first step
first and then followed by the next step in the sequence until the entire task
has been performed. On the other hand, in backward chaining, the teacher
models all the steps from the beginning and then allows the child to do the
last step of the behavior chain with assistance and prompts

The use of video-based intervention including video modeling and

video prompting for teaching daily living skills, such as brushing teeth,
setting a table, washing dishes, etc. has been found effective for learners
with intellectual and learning difficulties (Rayner 2011, Bellini & Akullian
20017 cited in Heward 2013). With video modeling, a student watches a brief
video of an able person performing a target skill or task and then imitates
the behavior. In video self-modeling, the student watches a video of
himself/herself performing a task. In video prompting, each step is shown in
a video, which the student imitates before the next step is shown. This is
helpful as the student can access the video anytime, replay it as often as
needed to develop independence.

In summary, this chapter has presented important definitions,

identification and assessment, learning characteristics, and general
educational adaptations for learners with additional needs namely: (1) the
gifted and talented students with difficulties in (2) seeing, (3) hearing, (4)
communicating, (5) walking and moving, (6) remembering and focusing, and
(7) self-care. You have learned the different disability labels that are
associated with the difficulties, their challenges in learning, their strengths,
and educational adaptations in the form of accommodation. While awareness
and understanding of their disability and needs are essential, as educators
supportive of inclusive education, it is of utmost importance that we see
learners with additional needs beyond their difficulties, to enable them to
explore and use their range of strengths and abilities as well as provide
opportunities for them to succeed and flourish in their own positive niches.