Statistics:

Sampling Methods
Dr. Nilesh Fichadiya
M.D.(Community Medicine), D.P.H.

What is sampling?

• To know prevalence of certain diseases or health

conditions in particular area
• Done by studying very small number of population
• No need to take whole population
 E.g. To know prevalence rate of anaemia, HT, DM, obesity
etc.
 Various rates like accident rate, death rate, birth rate
etc.

Identifying such problems in different

set up
• In India, Gujarat, Rajkot district, Rajkot city,
particular Taluka or village etc.
• Rural/Urban area
• In certain religion – Hindu, Muslim, Sikh, Christian
etc.
• Various age group : 0-5 years, 15-45 years, > 60
years
• Gender based: Male/Female
• Various groups: Students, teachers, doctors, bank
employees, pregnant women, elderly etc.

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Why sampling is needed?
• It is not possible to include each member of total
population or universe
• Further, covering entire population may be less
accurate because:
1. Large number of investigators are required
2. Their uniformity and correctness may vary
3. Data collection is costly
4. Time consuming
• So, it is preferred to use an appropriate sampling
technique
• There are many day to day example of sampling

Definitions
 Population/Universe:
 Group of animate or inanimate units of observation about which certain
information is required.
 E.g. The class or families living in the city from which you select your
sample .
 Characteristics of population: Parameter
 Sample:
 A part or proportion of Population/Universe, selected in certain manner,
from whom required information is collected.
 E.g. A small group of students or families from whom you collect the
required information to estimate the average age of the class or average
income is called the sample
 Characteristics of sample: Statistic

 The number of students or families from whom you obtain the

required information is called the sample size and is usually
denoted by the letter n

Definitions (Cont.)
The way you select students or families is called the
Sampling design or Sampling method

Each element/unit that becomes the basis for

selecting your sample is called the sampling unit or
sampling element
The smallest unit of a population (individuals in a survey)
are called sampling units
A complete, nonoverlapping list identifying each
sampling unit in the study population/universe is
called the sampling frame

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 Target
population Accessible
population

Intended
Sample

Actual
study subjects

Definition of Sample:

• Sample is a finite number of people, object or

items statistically selected from the population.

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Sampling frame
• A list defining the population from which the
sample will be drawn
• Examples:
 Telephone book
 Voter list

• Essential for probability sampling

Sampling
• Sampling is the process of selecting a small
number of elements from a larger defined
target group of elements.
• This enables us to make judgements about the
larger group from the small group
• Purpose: To gather maximum information about
the population under consideration at minimum
cost, time and human power which is best
representative of the population

Objectives of sampling
• Estimation of population parameters (eg. Mean,
percentage, proportion, rate) from sample data
• To test hypothesis about the population from which
the sample is drawn
• To compare with known fact/indices/data

Inference drawn from a sample applies to the

defined population (universe) from which
sample/samples are drawn and not to other
population

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Why do we need to do Sampling?
o Cheaper (less resources needed) and faster
o Internally more valid
o Easy to manage
o Less people involved
o Procedures can be standardized easily

A good sampling method will ensure external validity

Merits and limitations of Census method

• Merits:
 The data are collected from each and every item of the
population
 The results are more accurate and reliable, because every
item of the universe is required.
 Intensive study is possible.
 The data collected can be used for secondary data
analyses.
• Limitations:
 Expensive
 Labour intensive and time consuming if the population is
large

Merits and limitations of sampling

• Merits
1. Saves time and labour.
2. Reduction of cost in terms of money and man-hour.
3. Ends up with greater accuracy of results.
4. Has greater scope.
5. Has greater adaptability.
6. If the population is too large, sampling is the only method
to be used.
• Limitations
1. Must be done by qualified and experienced persons.
2. There is the possibility of sampling errors.

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 Sampling Techniques
• Probability Sampling: • Non-probability Sampling:
1. Simple Random Sampling 1. Quota Sampling
2. Systematic Random 2. Purposive sampling
Sampling
3. Convenience or
3. Stratified Random Availability Sampling
Sampling
4. Snow ball sampling
4. Cluster Sampling
5. Multi-stage Sampling
6. Multi-phase Sampling

Probability Non probability

sampling sampling
• Random Selection • Non-random selection
• Unbiased • Biased
• Each member of the • All members do not have
population has a known equal chance of being
non-zero probability of selected
being selected. • Chance of being selected
• Chance of being can’t be calculated
selected can be • Probability of sampling
calculated error can’t be calculated.
• Probability of sampling
error can be calculated.

1. Simple random sampling

• It is applicable when the population is small,

homogeneous and readily available
• Principle here is that every unit of the
population has an equal chance for selection
• The sample may be drawn unit by unit, either by
numbering or from published tables
• To ensure random selection one may adopt
either lottery method or table of random
number or excel software

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Lottery method
• Suppose, 10 patients are to be put on drug trial out
of 100 patients.
o Note the serial number of patients on 100 cards
and shuffle them well
o Draw out one and note the number
o Replace the card drawn, reshuffle and draw the 2nd
card
o repeat the process till 10 numbers are drawn
o Reject the cards that are drawn for 2nd time

Table of random number

• Published tables of random numbers are used

• To draw a sample of 10 out of 100
First give serial number to a lot of 100 patients
Total no. of patients are 100, a 3 digit number
Either number less than 100 may be chosen
Or number higher than 100 may be divided by 100
and the remainders chosen as sample unit
If the sample no. come more than once then choose
another no. from the table

Random number table

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Merits of simple random sampling
1) Simple & Scientific method
2) More representative: Each unit has equal chance

Demerits of simple random sampling

1) Require complete sampling frame/list of individual

2. Systematic sampling
• Used when population is homogenous, large and
complete list of population is available
 Systematic procedure is followed to choose a
sample by taking Kth sample interval
K = Total population
Desired sample size
e.g. if 10% sample is to be taken out of 1000
patients
K= 1000 = 1000 = 10 =>
So, every
10 % of 1000 100
10 subject
th

will be taken

• One random number is chosen from 10 cards

serially numbered from 1 to 10
• Suppose it is 7, then sample are 7, 7+10 = 17, 17 +
10 = 27, 37, 47,...., 987,997
• So, every Kth number is chosen
• E.g.
• Every 6th patient coming to OPD
• Every 3rd roll numbered student

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Merits of systematic random sampling

1) Procedure is simple
2) Time and labour involved in the
selection/collection of sample is relatively small
3) If population is sufficiently large, it is preferred
sampling method

Demerits of systematic random sampling

1) Mostly require complete sampling frame/list of
individual

3. Stratified sampling
• Used when the population is composed of diverse
segment (Not homogenous).

• Population under study is first divided into

homogenous group called ‘Strata’
E.g. Workers: Skilled/unskilled/clerical/non clerical
Religion wise: Hindu /Muslim /Christian /Sikh / Buddha
Age wise: <5 yrs/ 5-14 years/ 15-49 years/>50 years

3. Stratified sampling

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3. Stratified sampling
• Sample is drawn from each stratum by Simple /
Systematic random method in proportion to its size

• Merits:
1. More representative sample of population can be
studied
2. It gives greater accuracy among various strata
3. Estimation of different characteristics can be made for
each stratum separately

4. Multistage sampling
• Sampling procedure carried out in several stages
using random sampling techniques
• This is employed in large country surveys

4. Multistage sampling
• E.g. In a survey of villages in India:
 In 1st stage six states are randomly selected
 In 2nd stage four district are randomly selected from each
state
 In 3rd stage, two taluka from each district are randomly
selected
 In 4th stage, two villages from each taluka are randomly
selected
 So, 6x4x2x2 = 96 villages can be selected for the survey

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4. Multistage sampling
• Merits:
1. The sample is spread over entire population
2. Sampling frame of entire population is not required
3. Every unit has equal chance of selection
4. Save time & cost

• Demerits:
1. Sampling error is high compared to SRS
2. Sampling unit may vary in size at different stages

5. Cluster sampling
• A cluster is group of population
• This method is used when units of population are
natural groups or clusters such as villages, wards,
blocks, slums of town, factories, schools, etc.

• Sampling frame of all cluster is needed

• A cluster is assumed to be externally homogenous

and internally heterogenous

5. Cluster sampling: Design Effect

• Cluster sampling is less effective as compared to
SRS due to lesser sample size
• DEFF (Design Effect): correction factor that is
multiplied with the sample size of random
sampling, to get final sample size for cluster
sampling
• Required to control for homogeneity (intra cluster
correlation)
• DEFF usually varies from 1 to 3

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5. Cluster sampling
• For Immunization survey, WHO usually uses 30
clusters sampling:
• Identification of clusters for data collection.
 List all cities/towns/villages/wards/slum areas
 Calculate cumulative population and divide the same by
30. This gives a sample interval
 Select random number less than or equal to sampling
interval. This form the first cluster
 Random number plus sampling interval gives population
of 2nd cluster
 No. in 2nd cluster + sample interval = 3rd cluster....
 Now, all houses in each cluster are numbered
 First house for survey in each cluster should be selected
randomly

Sr. Name of slum Population Cumulative Selected

No. area population cluster
1 AA 1500 1500
2 AB 2000 3500 1st
3 AC 1000 4500
4 AD 3000 7500 2nd
5 AE 500 8000 3rd
6 AF 750 8750
7 AG 2250 11000 4th
8 AH 3750 14750 5th
9 AI 2000 16750
---- ------- ------- ------ ------
64 CL 1100 90000

o 90000/30 = 3000. so, 3000 is cluster interval in 30 cluster survey.

o Suppose, the random number is 1993
o 1993 falls in 2nd area AB. It is selected as 1st cluster for study.
o 1993+3000 = 4993. 4993 falls in 4th area AD which will be 2nd cluster
o 4993+3000 = 7993 + 3000= 10993

• WHO survey to evaluate vaccination coverage UIP

Survey of 210 children from 30 clusters, taking 7 children
in the age group 12-23 months from each cluster

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5. Cluster sampling
• Advantages:
1. Cheap, quick and easy method
2. Useful when entire sampling frame is not available

• Disadvantages:
1. Not representative of entire population

PPS (Probability Proportional to Size

• If the total population is composed of different
strata/cluster of different size, but the number of
individual selected from each strata is same…
 Individuals in large strata  less chance of being
selected
 Individual in small strata  more chance of being
selected
• To minimize this problem  the subsample from
each strata is collected proportional to it’s size

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6. Multiphase sampling
• In this method part of information is collected from
the whole sample and part of information is from
sub sample.
• Example of tuberculosis survey:
 1st phase: Clinical history from all subjects of sample
 2nd phase: those who are positive for symptoms are
screened by x-ray chest/Montoux test, which is more
expensive than the first step

6. Multiphase sampling
 3rd phase: sputum examination for those who are
positive for x-ray chest and clinical symptoms for
confirmation of tuberculosis

• So, those who need sputum examination will be

smaller in numbers

Non-probability Sampling

• It is the sampling procedure which does not have

any basis for estimating the probability that each
subject have been included in the sample

• In this type of sampling, subjects are selected

deliberately by the researcher

• Researcher's choice is supreme

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Non-probability Sampling

• In this design, personal element has a great chance

of entering into the selection of sample

• The investigator may select the sample which may

yield results favourable to his/her point of view

• High chance that the entire study is biased

Non-probability Sampling

• But, if the investigator are impartial, work without

bias and have the necessary experience so as to
take sound judgement, the results obtained from
an analysis may be reliable

Non-probability Sampling

1. Quota Sampling
2. Purposive Sampling
3. Convenience Sampling
4. Snow Ball Sampling

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Quota sampling
• Main consideration is researcher’s ease of access to
select predetermined sample

• E.g. 20 patient taken from OPD

• Least expensive of all methods

• No requirement of sampling frame

Purposive/Judgemental sampling
• Selection of sample based on researcher’s
judgement regarding best population to get
required information related to the study

• Useful when you want to develop something about

which only little is known
• E.g.
 All the patients with some rare syndrome are selected

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Snowball sampling
• Process of selecting sample using networks.
• Start with a few individuals and extends to their
contacts until required samples are collected

Snowball sampling
• Advantage
 Need to make contact with only few people initially
 No need of entire sampling frame

• Disadvantage:
 Choice of entire sample rests on the choice of individuals
at the first stage
 If they are from a particular group then the study might
get biased

Thank You

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