Table 1

Table 2
(1)

(a) For the calculation of the peak load, average load, and load factor for
each distribution transformer (T1-T15).
Given : Table1
Table 2
pf = 0.9 = Cosθ
Sinθ = 0.436
Substation Transformer rating = 66kV/11kV
Feeder Voltage (VS3) 3phase = 11kV
Distribution Transformer rating (T1-T15) = 11kV/415V
Distribution Voltage (Vs) = 415V
Therefore, P = √3VI*Cosθ
= √3*415*I*0.9
P = 0.64693*I

 T1 => Peak load (A) = 4.651 A (6pm)

(kW) = 0.64693*4.651 = 3.009 KW

Average load (A) = Total load (24hrs) / no. of hrs

= 50.936 / 24 = 2.122 A
(kW) = 0.64693*2.122 = 1.373 kW

Load factor = Average load (kW) / Peak Load (kW)

= 1.373 / 3.009 = 0.456

 T2 => Peak load (A) = 9.981 A (7pm)

(kW) = 0.64693*9.981 = 6.457 KW

Average load (A) = Total load (24hrs) / no. of hrs

= 112.512 / 24 = 4.688 A
(kW) = 0.64693*4.688 = 3.033 kW

Load factor = Average load (kW) / Peak Load (kW)

= 3.033 / 6.457 = 0.468

 T3 => Peak load (A) = 5.02 A (2pm)

(kW) = 0.64693*5.02 = 3.248 KW

Average load (A) = Total load (24hrs) / no. of hrs

= 60.938 / 24 = 2.539 A
(kW) = 0.64693*2.539 = 1.643 kW

Load factor = Average load (kW) / Peak Load (kW)

= 1.643 / 3.248 = 0.647
 T4 => Peak load (A) = 2.815 A (6pm)
(kW) = 0.64693*2.815 = 1.821 KW

Average load (A) = Total load (24hrs) / no. of hrs

= 25.774 / 24 = 1.074 A
(kW) = 0.64693*1.074 = 0.695 kW

Load factor = Average load (kW) / Peak Load (kW)

= 0.695 / 1.821 = 0.382

 T5 => Peak load (A) = 13.192 A (7pm)

(kW) = 0.64693*13.192 = 8.534 KW

Average load (A) = Total load (24hrs) / no. of hrs

= 148.113 / 24 = 6.172 A
(kW) = 0.64693*6.172 = 3.993 kW

Load factor = Average load (kW) / Peak Load (kW)

= 3.993 / 8.534 = 0.468

 T6 => Peak load (A) = 6.569 A (3pm)

(kW) = 0.64693*6.569 = 4.25 KW

Average load (A) = Total load (24hrs) / no. of hrs

= 81.094 / 24 = 3.379 A
(kW) = 0.64693*3.379 = 2.186 kW

Load factor = Average load (kW) / Peak Load (kW)

= 2.186 / 4.25 = 0.514

 T7 => Peak load (A) = 7.933 A (6pm)

(kW) = 0.64693*7.933 = 5.132 KW

Average load (A) = Total load (24hrs) / no. of hrs

= 89.807 / 24 = 3.742 A
(kW) = 0.64693*3.742 = 2.421 kW

Load factor = Average load (kW) / Peak Load (kW)

= 2.421 / 5.132 = 0.472

 T8 => Peak load (A) = 3.763 A (10am)

(kW) = 0.64693*3.761 = 2.434 KW

Average load (A) = Total load (24hrs) / no. of hrs

= 46.235 / 24 = 1.927 A
(kW) = 0.64693*1.927 = 1.247 kW

Load factor = Average load (kW) / Peak Load (kW)

= 1.247 / 2.434 = 0.512
 T9 => Peak load (A) = 3.819 A (6pm)
(kW) = 0.64693*3.819 = 2.471 KW

Average load (A) = Total load (24hrs) / no. of hrs

= 41.221 / 24 = 1.718 A
(kW) = 0.64693*2.122 = 1.111 kW

Load factor = Average load (kW) / Peak Load (kW)

= 1.111 / 2.471 = 0.45

 T10 => Peak load (A) = 6.444 A (7pm)

(kW) = 0.64693*6.444 = 4.169 KW

Average load (A) = Total load (24hrs) / no. of hrs

= 58.505 / 24 = 2.438 A
(kW) = 0.64693*2.438 = 1.577 kW

Load factor = Average load (kW) / Peak Load (kW)

= 1.577 / 4.169 = 0.378

 T11 => Peak load (A) = 3.595 A (7pm)

(kW) = 0.64693*3.595 = 2.326 KW

Average load (A) = Total load (24hrs) / no. of hrs

= 40.291 / 24 = 1.679 A
(kW) = 0.64693*1.679 = 1.087 kW

Load factor = Average load (kW) / Peak Load (kW)

= 1.087 / 2.326 = 0.467

 T12 => Peak load (A) = 7.441 A (6pm)

(kW) = 0.64693*7.441 = 4.814 KW

Average load (A) = Total load (24hrs) / no. of hrs

= 84.087 / 24 = 3.503 A
(kW) = 0.64693*3.503 = 2.266 kW

Load factor = Average load (kW) / Peak Load (kW)

= 2.266 / 4.814 = 0.471

 T13 => Peak load (A) = 3.347 A (2pm)

(kW) = 0.64693* = 3.347 KW

Average load (A) = Total load (24hrs) / no. of hrs

= 61.725 / 24 = 2.572 A
(kW) = 0.64693*2.572 = 1.664 kW

Load factor = Average load (kW) / Peak Load (kW)

= 1.664 / 3.347 = 0.498
 T14 => Peak load (A) = 2.764 A (7pm)
(kW) = 0.64693*2.764 = 1.791 KW

Average load (A) = Total load (24hrs) / no. of hrs

= 25.194 / 24 = 1.05 A
(kW) = 0.64693*1.05 = 0.679 kW

Load factor = Average load (kW) / Peak Load (kW)

= 0.679 / 1.791 = 0.379

 T15 => Peak load (A) = 8.042 A (7pm)

(kW) = 0.64693*8.042 = 5.203 KW

Average load (A) = Total load (24hrs) / no. of hrs

= 74.764 / 24 = 3.115 A
(kW) = 0.64693*3.115 = 2.015 kW

Load factor = Average load (kW) / Peak Load (kW)

= 2.015 / 5.203 = 0.387
(b) The maximum demand after diversity for each feeder and the specific
time at which the peak demand of the feeder occurs.
 Max. Demand for Feeder-1 (T1-T5) = 32.134 A
= 0.64693*32.134
= 20.788 kW

Specific time = 7pm

 Max. Demand for Feeder-2 (T6-T10) = 22 A

= 0.64693*22
= 14.232 kW

Specific time = 6pm

 Max. Demand for Feeder-1 (T11-T15) = 23.492 A

= 0.64693*23.492
= 15.198 kW

Specific time = 7pm

(c) The voltage regulation (until the lowest voltage point) and the
efficiency of each feeder, assuming that isolators I5 and I8 remain
disconnected.

Here power in secondary and primary transformer winding will be same,

So,
VS1*Ip = Vs*Is
We know by given values,
11000*Ip = 415*Is
Therefore,
Ip = (415 / 11000)*Is
Ip = 0.0377*Is
Now,
For Feeder-1,
Peak load = 20.788kW at 7pm

Primary current across T1-T5 at 7pm,

Ip1 = 0.0377*Is1
= 0.0377*4.259
= 0.161 A

Ip2 = 0.0377*Is2
= 0.0377*9.981
= 0.376 A

Ip3 = 0.0377*Is3
= 0.0377*1.985
= 0.075 A

Ip4 = 0.0377*Is4
= 0.0377*2.717
= 0.102 A

Ip5 = 0.0377*Is5
= 0.0377*13.192
= 0.497 A

Current flowing through I2-T5,

I(T4-T5) = Ip5 = 0.497

I(T3-T4) = Ip4 + I(T4-T5) = 0.599
I(T2-T3) = Ip3 + I(T3-T4) = 0.674
I(T1-T2) = Ip2 + I(T2-T3) = 1.050
I(I2-T1) = Ip1 + I(T1-T2) = 1.211
Line Impedance (in ohms),

Z(T4-T5) => R = 3.384 ; X = 4.512

Z(T3-T4) => R = 3.168 ; X = 4.224
Z(T2-T3) => R = 3.036 ; X = 4.048
Z(T1-T2) => R = 3 ;X=4
Z(I2-T1) => R = 3.18 ; X = 4.24

Voltage drop across I2-T5,

Vdrop(T4-T5) = I(T4-T5) * ( RCosθ + XSinθ )

= 0.497 * ( 3.384*0.9 + 4.512*0.436 )
= 2.491 V

Vdrop(T3-T4) = I(T3-T4) * ( RCosθ + XSinθ )

= 0.599 * ( 3.168*0.9 + 4.224*0.436 )
= 2.811 V

Vdrop(T2-T3) = I(T2-T3) * ( RCosθ + XSinθ )

= 0.674 * ( 3.036*0.9 + 4.048*0.436 )
= 3.031 V

Vdrop(T1-T2) = I(T1-T2) * ( RCosθ + XSinθ )

= 1.050 * ( 3*0.9 + 4*0.436 )
= 4.667 V

Vdrop(I2-T1) = I(I2-T1) * ( RCosθ + XSinθ )

= 1.211 * ( 3.18*0.9 + 4.24*0.436 )
= 5.704 V

Total Vdrop(Feeder-1) = 18.704

Nominal or sender end Primary Voltage (phase-phase) VS3 = 11kV

(phase-neutral) VS1 = 11000 / √3 = 6350.85 V

Voltage at receivers end VR = 6350.85 - 18.704 = 6332.15

Therefore,
Voltage Regulation = (VS1 - VR) / VS1 * 100
= (6350.85 - 6332.15) / 6350.85 * 100
= 0.295 %

Line Losses,
Ploss(T4-T5) = (0.497)2 * 3.384 = 0.836 W
Ploss(T3-T4) = (0.599)2 * 3.168 = 1.137 W
Ploss(T2-T3) = (0.674)2 * 3.036 = 1.379 W
Ploss(T1-T2) = (1.050)2 * 3 = 3.308 W
Ploss(I2-T1) = (1.211)2 * 3.18 = 4.667 W
 Total Ploss = 11.324

Efficiency = P / (P + Ploss)*100
= 20.788 / (20.788 + 11.324)*100
= 99.945%
Now,
For Feeder-2,
Peak load = 14.232kW at 6pm

Primary current across T6-T10 at 6pm,

Ip6 = 0.0377*Is6
= 0.0377*2.59
= 0.098 A

Ip7 = 0.0377*Is7
= 0.0377*7.933
= 0.299 A

Ip8 = 0.0377*Is8
= 0.0377*1.391
= 0.052 A

Ip9 = 0.0377*Is9
= 0.0377*3.819
= 0.144 A

Ip10 = 0.0377*Is10
= 0.0377*6.267
= 0.236 A

Current flowing through I2-T5,

I(T9-T10) = Ip10 = 0.236

I(T8-T9) = Ip9 + I(T9-T10) = 0.380
I(T7-T8) = Ip8 + I(T8-T9) = 0.432
I(T6-T7) = Ip7 + I(T7-T8) = 0.731
I(I4-T6) = Ip6 + I(T6-T7) = 0.829

Line Impedance (in ohms),

Z(T9-T10) => R = 3.852 ; X = 5.136

Z(T8-T9) => R = 3.168 ; X = 4.224
Z(T7-T8) => R = 3.036 ; X = 4.048
Z(T6-T7) => R = 3.12 ; X = 4.16
Z(I4-T6) => R = 2.91 ; X = 3.88
Voltage drop across I2-T5,

Vdrop(T9-T10) = I(T9-T10) * ( RCosθ + XSinθ )

= 0.236 * ( 3.852*0.9 + 5.136*0.436 )
= 1.347 V

Vdrop(T8-T9) = I(T8-T9) * ( RCosθ + XSinθ )

= 0.380 * ( 3.168*0.9 + 4.224*0.436 )
= 1.783V

Vdrop(T7-T8) = I(T7-T8) * ( RCosθ + XSinθ )

= 0.432 * ( 3.036*0.9 + 4.048*0.436 )
= 1.943 V

Vdrop(T6-T7) = I(T6-T7) * ( RCosθ + XSinθ )

= 0.731 * ( 3.12*0.9 + 4.16*0.436 )
= 3.379 V

Vdrop(I4-T6) = I(I4-T6) * ( RCosθ + XSinθ )

= 0.829 * ( 2.91*0.9 + 3.88*0.436 )
= 3.574 V

Total Vdrop(Feeder-1) = 12.026

Nominal or sender end Primary Voltage (phase-phase) VS3 = 11kV

(phase-neutral) VS1 = 11000 / √3 = 6350.85 V

Voltage at receivers end VR = 6350.85 - 12.026 = 6338.824

Therefore,
Voltage Regulation = (VS1 - VR) / VS1 * 100
= (6350.85 - 6340.134) / 6350.85 * 100
= 0.189 %

Line Losses,
Ploss(T9-T10) = (0.236)2 * 3.852 = 0.215 W
Ploss(T8-T9) = (0.380)2 * 3.168 = 0.457 W
Ploss(T7-T8) = (0.432)2 * 3.036 = 0.567 W
Ploss(T6-T7) = (0.731)2 * 3.12 = 1.667 W
Ploss(I4-T6) = (0.829)2 * 2.91 = 2 W

Total Ploss = 4.906

Efficiency = P / (P + Ploss)*100
= 14232 / (14232 + 4.906)*100
= 99.97%
Now,
For Feeder-3,
Peak load = 15.198 at 7pm

Primary current across T11-T15 at 7pm,

Ip11 = 0.0377*Is11
= 0.0377*3.595
= 0.136 A

Ip12 = 0.0377*Is12
= 0.0377*7.245
= 0.273 A

Ip13 = 0.0377*Is13
= 0.0377*1.846
= 0.070 A

Ip14 = 0.0377*Is14
= 0.0377*2.764
= 0.104 A

Ip15 = 0.0377*Is15
= 0.0377*8.042
= 0.303 A

Current flowing through I2-T5,

I(T14-T15) = Ip15 = 0.303

I(T13-T14) = Ip14 + I(T14-T15) = 0.407
I(T12-T13) = Ip13 + I(T13-T14) = 0.477
I(T11-T12) = Ip12 + I(T12-T13) = 0.750
I(I7-T11) = Ip11 + I(T11-T12) = 0.886

Line Impedance,

Z(T14-T15) => R = 3.42 ; X = 4.56

Z(T13-T14) => R = 3.564 ; X = 4.752
Z(T12-T13) => R = 3.564 ; X = 4.752
Z(T11-T12) => R = 3.21 ; X = 4.28
Z(I7-T11) => R = 3.21 ; X = 4.28

Voltage drop across I2-T5,

Vdrop(T4-T5) = I(T4-T5) * ( RCosθ + XSinθ )

= 0.303 * ( 3.42*0.9 + 4.56*0.436 )
= 1.535 V

Vdrop(T3-T4) = I(T3-T4) * ( RCosθ + XSinθ )

= 0.407 * ( 3.564*0.9 + 4.752*0.436 )
 = 2.149 V

Vdrop(T2-T3) = I(T2-T3) * ( RCosθ + XSinθ )

= 0.477 * ( 3.564*0.9 + 4.752*0.436 )
= 2.518 V

Vdrop(T1-T2) = I(T1-T2) * ( RCosθ + XSinθ )

= 0.750 * ( 3.21*0.9 + 4.28*0.436 )
= 3.566 V

Vdrop(I2-T1) = I(I2-T1) * ( RCosθ + XSinθ )

= 0.886 * ( 3.21*0.9 + 4.28*0.436 )
= 4.213 V

Total Vdrop(Feeder-1) = 12.239

Nominal or sender end Primary Voltage (phase-phase) VS3 = 11kV

(phase-neutral) VS1 = 11000 / √3 = 6350.85 V

Voltage at receivers end VR = 6350.85 - 12.239 = 6338.611

Therefore,
Voltage Regulation = (VS1 - VR) / VS1 * 100
= (6350.85 - 6332.15) / 6350.85 * 100
= 0.193 %

Line Losses,
Ploss(T24-T15) = (0.303)2 * 3.42 = 0.314 W
Ploss(T13-T14) = (0.407)2 * 3.564 = 0.590 W
Ploss(T12-T13) = (0.477)2 * 3.564 = 0.811 W
Ploss(T11-T12) = (0.750)2 * 3.21 = 1.806 W
Ploss(I7-T11) = (0.886)2 * 3.21 = 2.52 W

Total Ploss = 6.041

Efficiency = P / (P + Ploss)*100
= 15198 / (15198 + 6.041)*100
= 99.96%
(d) The voltage regulation (up to the point of lowest voltage) and
efficiency, when all feeders are interconnected with I5 and I8.

We will assume a direct current transfer facilitated by the interconnectors,

Specifically:
1. Inter-connector I5 (T5-T10): It carries current II5 from Feeder-2 (T10) to Feeder-
1 (T5) equal to 20% of the load current IT5.
2. Inter-connector I5 (T5-T10): It carries current II8 from Feeder-2 (T10) to Feeder-
3 (T15) equal to 20% of the load current IT15.

Peak Load Current in whole grid is at 6pm, Primary Currents in A:

 IT1 = 0.161 A
 IT2 = 0.376 A
 IT3 = 0.075 A
 IT4 = 0.102 A
 IT5 = 0.497 A
 IT6 = 0.092 A
 IT7 = 0.279 A
 IT8 = 0.057 A
 IT9 = 0.136 A
 IT10 = 0.243 A
 IT11 = 0.136 A
 IT12 = 0.273 A
 IT13 = 0.070 A
 IT14 = 0.104 A
 IT15 = 0.303 A
Calculation of Interconnector currents:
 II5 = 20% * IT5 = 0.20*0.497 = 0.099 A
 II8 = 20% * IT15 = 0.20*0.303 = 0.061 A

Line Impedance (Z = R + jX ohms)

 ZI2-T1 = 3.18 + j4.24
 ZT1-T2 = 3 + j4
 ZT2-T3 = 3.036 + j4.048
 ZT3-T4 = 3.168 + j4.224
 ZT4-T5 = 3.384 + j4.512
 ZT5-T10 = 3.456 + j4.608
 ZI4-T6 = 2.91 + j3.88
 ZT6-T7 = 3.12 + j4.16
 ZT7-T8 = 3.036 + j4.048
 ZT8-T9 = 3.168 + j4.224
 ZT9-T10 = 3.852 + j5.136
 ZT10-T15 = 3.816 + j5.088
 ZI7-T11 = 3.21 + j4.28
 ZT11-T12 = 3.21 + j4.28
 ZT12-T13 = 3.564 + j4.752
 ZT13-T14 = 3.564 + j4.752
 ZT14-T15 = 3.42 + j4.56
For Feeder-1

Effective current at T5 from Feeder-1 side,

IT5eff = IT5 - II5 = 0.497 - 0.099 = 0.398 A

Current in ZT4-T5: IT4 + IT5eff = 0.102 + 0.398 = 0.5 A

ZT3-T4: IT3 + IT4-T5 = 0.075 + 0.5 = 0.575 A
ZT2-T3: IT2 + IT3-T4 = 0.376 + 0.575 = 0.951 A
ZT1-T2: IT1 + IT2-T3 = 0.161 + 0.951 = 1.112 A

Current in ZI2-T1 = 1.112 A

Voltage Drop (Feeder-1):

 VdropT4-T5 = 0.5 * (3.384*0.9 + 4.512*0.436) = 2.506 V
 VdropT3-T4 = 0.575 * (3.168*0.9 + 4.224*0.436) = 2.698 V
 VdropT2-T3 = 0.951 * (3.036*0.9 + 4.048*0.436) = 4.277 V
 VdropT1-T2 = 1.112 * (3*0.9 + 4*0.436) = 4.942 V
 VdropI2-T1 = 1.112 * (3.18*0.9 + 4.24*0.436) = 5.238 V

Total Voltage drop for Feeder-1 = 19.661 V

Full load Voltage = 6350.85 - 19.661 = 6331.189 V

Voltage Regulation (Feeder-1):

VRfeeder1 = (6350.85-6331.189) / 6331.189 * 100
= 0.311%

Losses (Feeder-1):
 PLossT4-T5 = (0.5)2 * 3.384 = 0.846 W
 PLossT3-T4 = (0.575)2 * 3.168 = 1.047 W
 PLossT2-T3 = (0.951)2 * 3.036 = 2.746 W
 PLossT1-T2 = (1.112)2 * 3 = 3.71 W
 PLossI2-T1 = (1.112)2 * 3.18 = 3.932 W

Total Power losses = 12.281 W = 0.0123 kW

Efficiency (Feeder-1) = 20.788 / (20.788 + 0.0123) * 100

= 99.941%
For Feeder-2

Current in ZT9-T10: IT10 + II5 + II8 = 0.243 + 0.099 + 0.061 = 0.403 A

ZT8-T9: IT9 + IT9-T10 = 0.136 + 0.403 = 0.539 A
ZT7-T8: IT8 + IT8-T9 = 0.057 + 0.539 = 0.596 A
ZT6-T7: IT7 + IT7-T8 = 0.279 + 0.596 = 0.875 A
ZI4-T6: IT6 + IT6-T7 = 0.092 + 0.875 = 0.967 A

Voltage Drop (Feeder-2):

 VdropT9-T10 = 0.403 * (3.852*0.9 + 5.136*0.436) = 2.3 V
 VdropT8-T9 = 0.539 * (3.168*0.9 + 4.224*0.436) = 2.529 V
 VdropT7-T8 = 0.596 * (3.036*0.9 + 4.048*0.436) = 2.680 V
 VdropT6-T7 = 0.875 * (3.12*0.9 + 4.16*0.436) = 4.044 V
 VdropI4-T6 = 0.967 * (2.91*0.9 + 3.88*0.436) = 4.168 V

Total Voltage drop for Feeder-2 = 15.739 V

Full load Voltage = 6350.85 - 15.739 = 6335.111 V

Voltage Regulation (Feeder-2):

VRfeeder1 = (6350.85-6335.111) / 6335.111 * 100
= 0.248%

Losses (Feeder-2):
 PLossT9-T10 = (0.403)2 * 3.852 = 0.626 W
 PLossT8-T9 = (0.539)2 * 3.168 = 0.920 W
 PLossT7-T8 = (0.596)2 * 3.036 = 1.078 W
 PLossT6-T7 = (0.875)2 * 3.12 = 2.389 W
 PLossI4-T6 = (0.967)2 * 2.91 = 2.721 W

Total Power losses = 7.734 W = 0.0077 kW

Power transferred to Feeder-1:

PI5,F2-F1 = II5 × VS1 × Cosθ = (0.099×6350.85×0.9) /1000 =0.566 kW

Power transferred to Feeder-3:

PI8,F2-F3 = II8 × VS1 × Cosθ = (0.061×6350.85×0.9) /1000 =0.349 kW

Pout,Feeder2,actual = Pout,Feeder-2 + PI5,F2toF1 + PI8,F2toF3

= 14.232+0.566+0.349 = 15.147 kW

Efficiency (Feeder-2) = 15.147 / (15.147 + 0.0077) * 100

= 99.949%
For Feeder-3

Effective current at T15 from Feeder-3 side,

IT15eff = IT15 - II8 = 0.303 - 0.061 = 0.242 A

Current in ZT14-T5: IT14 + IT15eff = 0.104 + 0.242 = 0.346 A

ZT13-T14: IT13 + IT14-T15 = 0.070 + 0.346 = 0.416 A
ZT12-T13: IT12 + IT13-T14 = 0.273 + 0.416 = 0.689 A
ZT11-T12: IT11 + IT12-T13 = 0.136 + 0.951 = 0.825 A

Current in ZI7-T11 = 0.825 A

Voltage Drop (Feeder-3):

 VdropT14-T15 = 0.346 * (3.42*0.9 + 4.56*0.436) = 1.753 V
 VdropT13-T14 = 0.416 * (3.564*0.9 + 4.752*0.436) = 2.190 V
 VdropT12-T13 = 0.689 * (3.564*0.9 + 4.752*0.436) = 3.626 V
 VdropT11-T12 = 0.825 * (3.21*0.9 + 456*0.436) = 4.024 V
 VdropI7-T11 = 0.825 * (3.21*0.9 + 4.56*0.436) = 4.024 V

Total Voltage drop for Feeder-3 = 15.617 V

Full load Voltage = 6350.85 - 15.617 = 6335.233 V

Voltage Regulation (Feeder-3):

VRfeeder1 = (6350.85-6335.233) / 6335.233 * 100
= 0.247%

Losses (Feeder-3):
 PLossT14-T15 = (0.346)2 * 3.42 = 0.409 W
 PLossT13-T14 = (0.416)2 * 3.564 = 0.617 W
 PLossT12-T13 = (0.689)2 * 3.564 = 1.692 W
 PLossT11-T12 = (0.825)2 * 3.21 = 2.185 W
 PLossI7-T11 = (0.825)2 * 3.21 = 2.185 W

Total Power losses = 7.088 W = 0.0071 kW

Power transferred from Feeder-2:

PI8,F2-F3 = II8 × VS1 × Cosθ = (0.061×6350.85×0.9) /1000 =0.349 kW

Pout,Feeder3,actual = Pout,Feeder-3 - PI8,F2toF3

= 15.198 - 0.349 = 14.849 kW

Efficiency (Feeder-1) = 14.849 / (14.849 + 0.0071) * 100

= 99.952%

Losses in Interconnectors:
PLossI5 = (0.099)^2 * 3.384 = 0.033 W
PLossI8 = (0.061)^2 * 3.384 = 0.013 W

Total PLoss = 0.046 W

(e) Two Strategies for Enhancing Voltage Stability of Feeders
Voltage stability in a distribution network refers to its ability to maintain acceptable
voltage levels at all buses under normal operating conditions and after disturbances.
Here are two common strategies:

Strategy 1: Reactive Power Compensation (e.g., Shunt Capacitor Banks)

Description: This involves installing shunt capacitor banks at strategic locations along
the feeders (typically towards the ends of long feeders or at points with high reactive
load concentration). Capacitors generate reactive power, which counteracts the
reactive power consumed by inductive loads (motors, transformers) and the feeder's
inductive reactance.

Pros:
 Voltage Support: Directly increases voltage levels at the point of installation and
upstream by injecting reactive power, improving the voltage profile across the
feeder.
 Loss Reduction: By supplying reactive power locally, the need for reactive
current to flow from the substation is reduced. This lowers the total current
flowing through the feeder segments, thereby reducing I2 * R (real power) losses
and improving system efficiency.
 Increased Feeder Capacity: By reducing the total MVA flowing through the
feeder for the same real power delivery, it effectively frees up thermal capacity,
allowing the feeder to support more real power load.
 Cost-Effectiveness: Generally a less expensive solution for voltage improvement
compared to major infrastructure upgrades like re-conductoring or new
substations.
 Flexibility: Switched capacitor banks can be dynamically turned on or off based
on varying load conditions (e.g., more banks during peak load, fewer during light
load) to prevent overvoltage.

Cons:
 Overvoltage Issues: If not properly controlled (especially fixed banks during light
load periods), excessive leading reactive power can cause undesirable
overvoltages.
 Harmonic Resonance: Capacitor banks can interact with existing harmonic
distortions in the system, potentially leading to resonance conditions that magnify
harmonics and stress equipment.
 Switching Transients: The sudden energization or de-energization of capacitor
banks can create transient overvoltages and inrush currents, which might affect
sensitive electronic equipment or protective relays.
 Limited Real Power Transfer: While improving voltage and efficiency, it does
not fundamentally increase the real power transfer capability of the feeder in the
same way a larger conductor would.
Strategy 2: Re-conductoring of Feeder Segments

Description: This involves replacing existing feeder conductors with new conductors
of a larger cross-sectional area (lower resistance and reactance per unit length).

Pros:
 Significant Voltage Drop Reduction: Larger conductors have lower electrical
impedance (resistance and reactance), directly leading to a substantial reduction
in voltage drops along the feeder, thus greatly improving voltage stability.
 Substantial Loss Reduction: Lower resistance conductors result in significantly
reduced I2 * R losses, which directly improves the energy efficiency of the
distribution system.
 Increased Current Carrying Capacity: Larger conductors can safely carry higher
currents without exceeding their thermal limits, allowing for greater load growth
and preventing thermal overloads.
 Enhanced Reliability: Newer, often more robust conductors are less prone to
physical damage and aging-related failures, potentially improving the feeder's
overall reliability.

Cons:
 High Capital Cost: Re-conductoring is a very expensive undertaking, involving
significant material costs for new conductors, as well as substantial labor costs for
removal of old lines and installation of new ones.
 Extensive Outage Requirements: Requires planned outages of the feeder sections
being re-conductored, causing service interruptions for customers during the
construction period.
 Physical Constraints: May necessitate upgrades to existing poles, cross-arms, or
other support structures if the new conductors are heavier or have different sag
characteristics. This can add to cost and complexity.
 Environmental and Permitting Challenges: Can involve lengthy permitting
processes and potential environmental impacts depending on the scale and
location of the project.
(f) Determine the Anticipated Total Yearly Outage Duration for Each
Feeder
To determine the anticipated total yearly outage duration for each feeder due to faults,
assuming radial operation (isolators I5 and I8 are not engaged), we will use the
provided fault data and average repair time.

Provided Data:
Average repair time: 6 hours
Faults are recorded over the last 10 years.

Assumption:
In a purely radial system, a fault on any segment of a feeder causes an outage for the
entire feeder until the fault is repaired.

Calculation for Each Feeder:

We will sum the faults over the last 10 years for all segments within each feeder, then
convert to a yearly rate and multiply by the average repair time.

1. Feeder-1 (Connected from I2, serving T1 to T5):

Segments and their faults in last 10 years:

I2_T1: 1 fault
T1_T2: 0 faults
T2_T3: 2 faults
T3_T4: 2 faults
T4_T5: 1 fault

Total faults in 10 years for Feeder-1 = 1+0+2+2+1=6 faults.

Average yearly fault rate for Feeder-1(λF1) = 6 faults/10 years=0.6 faults/year.
Anticipated Total Yearly Outage Duration for Feeder-1 (DF1) = λF1 ×Average repair
time DF1 = 0.6 faults/year×6 hours/fault = 3.6 hours/year

2. Feeder-2 (Connected from I4, serving T6 to T10):

Segments and their faults in last 10 years:

I4_T6: 0 faults
T6_T7: 0 faults
T7_T8: 1 fault
T8_T9: 0 faults
T9_T10: 1 fault

Total faults in 10 years for Feeder-2 = 0+0+1+0+1=2 faults.

Average yearly fault rate for Feeder-2 (λF2) = 2 faults/10 years=0.2 faults/year.
Anticipated Total Yearly Outage Duration for Feeder-2 (DF2) = λF2 ×Average repair
time DF2 = 0.2 faults/year×6 hours/fault = 1.2 hours/year
3. Feeder-3 (Connected from I7, serving T11 to T15):

Segments and their faults in last 10 years:

I7_T11: 0 faults
T11_T12: 0 faults
T12_T13: 1 fault
T13_T14: 0 faults
T14_T15: 1 fault

Total faults in 10 years for Feeder-3 = 0+0+1+0+1=2 faults.

Average yearly fault rate for Feeder-3 (λF3) = 2 faults/10 years=0.2 faults/year.
Anticipated Total Yearly Outage Duration for Feeder-3 (DF3) = λF3 ×Average repair
time DF3 = 0.2 faults/year×6 hours/fault = 1.2 hours/year

Summary of Anticipated Total Yearly Outage Duration for Each Feeder:

Feeder-1: 3.6 hours/year

Feeder-2: 1.2 hours/year
Feeder-3: 1.2 hours/year
(g) Three Recommendations to Reduce the Average Yearly Downtime
for Distribution Transformers
Reducing downtime for distribution transformers primarily involves minimizing the
duration of power interruptions to them, whether due to their own failure or upstream
network faults.

Recommendation 1: Implement an Advanced Fault Location, Isolation, and Service

Restoration (FLISR) System (or Automated Sectionalizing/Reclosing)

Description: This involves installing automated sensing devices (e.g., fault detectors),
automated switching devices (e.g., reclosers, automated sectionalizers, and automated
tie switches), and a communication and control system. When a fault occurs on a
feeder, the FLISR system automatically detects the fault location, isolates the faulty
section, and then reconfigures the healthy sections of the feeder (potentially by
rerouting power from an adjacent feeder via an automated tie switch) to restore power
to as many distribution transformers as possible within seconds to minutes.

Benefits:
 Drastic Reduction in Outage Duration: Transforms hours-long manual restoration
processes into near-instantaneous automated ones, significantly cutting the
downtime for distribution transformers connected to healthy sections.
 Minimization of Affected Area: Only the transformers in the immediate faulty
segment remain de-energized, while transformers in adjacent healthy sections are
quickly restored.
 Improved Reliability Metrics: Directly enhances System Average Interruption
Duration Index (SAIDI) and System Average Interruption Frequency Index
(SAIFI), indicating better service quality for customers.
 Enhanced Safety: Reduces exposure of field crews to energized lines during fault
conditions by automating switching.

Potential Drawbacks:
 High Capital Investment: Significant upfront cost for automated switches, sensors,
communication infrastructure, and the central control system.
 Increased System Complexity: Requires sophisticated control logic, robust
communication, and skilled personnel for operation and maintenance, adding to
operational complexity.
 Cybersecurity Risks: Automated and networked systems are vulnerable to
cyberattacks, necessitating robust cybersecurity measures.
 Potential for Misoperation: If not properly designed, calibrated, or maintained,
FLISR systems can sometimes lead to nuisance trips or unintended switching
operations.
Recommendation 2: Implement Proactive and Predictive Maintenance for
Transformers

Description: Move beyond traditional time-based maintenance to a condition-based

approach. This involves continuous or periodic monitoring of key parameters of
distribution transformers (e.g., oil temperature, winding temperature, dissolved gas
analysis (DGA) for oil-filled transformers, partial discharge, vibration analysis, oil
quality analysis, and insulation resistance). Advanced analytics and machine learning
models are then used to predict potential failures before they occur.

Benefits:
 Reduced Unplanned Downtime: By identifying early signs of degradation or
impending failure, maintenance or replacement can be scheduled proactively as a
planned outage, which is typically shorter and less disruptive than an unplanned
emergency outage.
 Extended Asset Lifespan: Timely intervention based on condition monitoring can
address issues before they become critical, thereby extending the operational life
of transformers and deferring capital expenditures.
 Optimized Resource Utilization: Maintenance crews and spare parts can be
dispatched efficiently based on actual need, rather than fixed schedules or
reactive emergency responses.
 Improved Safety: Mitigates the risk of catastrophic transformer failures, which
can be dangerous and cause widespread damage.

Potential Drawbacks:
 Significant Initial Investment: Requires the purchase and installation of various
sensors, data acquisition units, communication infrastructure, and specialized data
analysis software.
 Data Overload and Management: Generates large volumes of data that need to be
effectively collected, stored, processed, and analyzed, requiring robust IT
infrastructure and skilled data scientists or engineers.
 Expertise Required: Requires specialized knowledge in transformer diagnostics
and data interpretation to accurately predict failures and avoid false alarms.
 Does Not Eliminate All Outages: While reducing unplanned downtime, it still
requires planned outages for any necessary maintenance or replacement activities.
Recommendation 3: Utilize Mobile or Standby Transformer Fleets / Redundancy for
Critical Loads

Description: Maintain a fleet of readily deployable mobile or standby distribution

transformers. In the event of a fault or planned outage of a stationary distribution
transformer (especially for critical loads like hospitals, large commercial centers, or
high-density residential areas), a mobile unit can be rapidly transported to the site,
connected, and energized to restore power, minimizing downtime for the affected
customers. For highly critical applications, direct N+1 redundancy (installing two
transformers where one can carry the full load, with one being a backup) can be
implemented.

Benefits:
 Rapid Restoration: Significantly reduces the downtime for customers served by a
failed transformer, as a replacement unit can be brought online much faster than
ordering and installing a new permanent unit.
 Enhanced Service Continuity for Critical Loads: Ensures high reliability of power
supply to essential services or high-value customers by providing a quick backup.
 Flexibility for Maintenance: Allows for planned maintenance or upgrades of
stationary transformers without service interruption by temporarily deploying a
mobile unit.
 Cost-Effective for Specific Scenarios: Can be more cost-effective than installing
permanent redundant transformers everywhere, especially for a large distribution
network.

Potential Drawbacks:
 Capital Cost of Fleet: Requires significant investment in purchasing and
maintaining a fleet of idle mobile/standby transformers.
 Logistical Challenges: Requires efficient logistics (transportation, skilled crews)
to rapidly deploy and connect mobile units, especially in emergency situations.
 Space Requirements: Mobile transformers require suitable access and space at the
installation site, and permanent redundant transformers need additional physical
space.
 Underutilization: The mobile fleet sits idle most of the time, incurring holding
costs and depreciation without generating direct revenue.
 No-Load Losses: Standby transformers (if permanently energized in an N+1
configuration) incur continuous no-load losses even when not serving load.
(2) To calculate the residual currents flowing between Feeder 1 and Feeder 2 after the
parallel arrangement is activated, considering the defective joint in phase A of Feeder
2, we will follow a phase-domain analysis approach.

The problem specifies:

Load voltage (phase-phase) at the load bus: VS3 = 11 kV.

Phase-neutral voltage: VS1 = 11000 / √3
= 6350.85 V.
Feeder 1 Load: S1 = 10 MVA at PF1 = 0.8 lagging.
Feeder 2 Load: S2 = 12 MVA at PF2 = 0.707 lagging.

Impedance Values:

Feeder 1 (phase A, B, C respectively):

Zr = 0.22+j1.0 ohms
Zs = 0.22+j1.0 ohms
Zt = 0.22+j1.0 ohms

Feeder 2 (phase A, B, C respectively):

Zx = 0.16+j1.0 ohms
Zy = 0.13+j1.0 ohms
Zz = 0.13+j1.0 ohms

1. Calculate Total Load Current for Each Phase

The loads are constant power. We will calculate the current injection for each phase
based on the nominal 11 kV load voltage.

 Feeder 1 Load Current (per phase):

S1,ph = 10 MVA / 3 = 3.3333 MVA.
Power factor angle ϕ1 = arc-cos (0.8) ≈ 36.87∘
IL1_ph = S1,ph / VS1 = (3.3333×106) / 6350.85 = 524.86 A.
IL1A = 524.86∠−36.87∘ A = (419.89−j314.92) A
IL1B = 524.86∠(−36.87∘ −120∘ ) A = (−228.61−j410.60) A
IL1C = 524.86∠(−36.87∘ +120∘ ) A = (−191.28+j725.52) A

 Feeder 2 Load Current (per phase):

S2,ph = 12 MVA / 3 = 4.0 MVA.
Power factor angle ϕ1 = arc-cos (0.707) ≈ 45∘
IL2_ph = S2,ph / VS1 = (4.0×106) / 6350.85 = 629.83 A.
IL2A = 629.83∠−45∘ A = (445.71−j445.71) A
IL2B = 629.83∠(−45∘ −120∘ ) A = (−48.24−j616.58) A
IL2C = 629.83∠(−45∘ +120∘ ) A = (−397.47+j170.87) A
 Total Combined Load Current for each phase (at the common load bus):

IL_A =IL1A + IL2A = (419.89−j314.92) + (445.71−j445.71)

= 865.60−j760.63 A
IL_B =IL1B + IL2B = (−228.61−j410.60) + (−48.24−j616.58)
= −276.85−j1027.18 A
IL_C =IL1C + IL2C = (−191.28+j725.52) + (−397.47+j170.87)
= −588.75+j896.39 A

2. Calculate Current Distribution between Parallel Feeders for each Phase

For each phase, the total load current is supplied by two parallel paths (Feeder 1 and
Feeder 2). The current divides inversely proportional to the impedance of each path.
Let ZF1p be the impedance of Feeder 1 for phase p (Zr, Zs, Zt) and ZF2p be the
impedance of Feeder 2 for phase p (Zx, Zy, Zz).

Current through Feeder 1 (phase p): IF1p = IL_p × (ZF2p / (ZF1p + ZF2p))
Current through Feeder 2 (phase p): IF1p = IL_p × (ZF1p / (ZF1p + ZF2p))

Phase A:

ZF1A = Zr = 0.22+j1.0Ω
ZF2A = Zx = 0.16+j1.0Ω
ZF1A +ZF2A = (0.22+j1.0) + (0.16+j1.0) = 0.38+j2.0Ω = 2.0358∠79.25∘ Ω
Zx = 1.0126∠80.89∘ Ω
Zr = 1.0241∠77.50∘ Ω
IL_A = 865.60 − j760.63 A = 1153.20∠−41.34∘ A
IF1A = (1153.20∠−41.34∘ ) × (1.0126∠80.89∘ ) / (2.0358∠79.25∘ )
IF1A = 574.0∠−39.70∘ A = (442.22 − j366.52) A
IF2A = (1153.20∠−41.34∘ ) × (1.0241∠77.50∘ ) / (2.0358∠79.25∘ )
IF2A = 580.4∠−43.09∘ A = (424.31 − j396.11) A

Phase B:

ZF1B = Zs = 0.22+j1.0Ω
ZF2B = Zy = 0.13+j1.0Ω
ZF1B +ZF2B = (0.22+j1.0) + (0.13+j1.0) = 0.35+j2.0Ω = 2.0304∠80.09∘ Ω
Zy = 1.0084∠82.59∘ Ω
Zs = 1.0241∠77.50∘ Ω
IL_B = − 276.85 − j1027.18 A = 1064.0∠−105.11∘ A
IF1B = (1064.0∠−105.11∘ ) × (1.0084∠82.59∘ ) / (2.0304∠80.09∘ )
IF1B = 528.2∠−102.61∘ A = (− 116.89 − j515.65) A
IF2B = (1064.0∠−105.11∘ ) × (1.0241∠77.50∘ ) / (2.0304∠80.09∘ )
IF2B = 536.8∠−107.70∘ A = (− 163.69 − j511.11) A
Phase C:

ZF1C = Zt = 0.22+j1.0Ω
ZF2C = Zz = 0.13+j1.0Ω
Since Zt = Zs and Zz = Zy, the impedance summations and angles are the same as for
Phase B.
IL_C = −588.75 + j896.39 A = 1075.8∠123.30∘ A
IF1C = (1075.8∠123.30∘ ) × (1.0084∠82.59∘ ) / (2.0304∠80.09∘ )
IF1C = 533.9∠125.80∘ A = (−312.27 + j432.22) A
IF2C = (1075.8∠123.30∘ ) × (1.0241∠77.50∘ ) / (2.0304∠80.09∘ )
IF2C = 542.7∠120.71∘ A = (−279.79 + j466.86) A

Step 3: Calculate Residual Currents for Each Feeder

The residual current for each feeder is the sum of its three-phase currents.

Residual Current for Feeder 1 (Iresidual_F1):

Iresidual_F1 = IF1A + IF1B + IF1C
Iresidual_F1 = (442.22 − j366.52) + (−116.89 − j515.65) + (−312.27 + j432.22)
Iresidual_F1 = (442.22 − 116.89 − 312.27) + j(−366.52 − 515.65 + 432.22)
Iresidual_F1 = 13.06 − j449.95 A

Residual Current for Feeder 2 (Iresidual_F2):

Iresidual_F2 = IF2A + IF2B + IF2C​
Iresidual_F2 = (424.31 − j396.11) + (−163.69 − j511.51) + (−279.79 + j466.86)
Iresidual_F2 = (424.31 − 163.69 − 279.79) + j(−396.11 − 511.51 + 466.86)
Iresidual_F2 = −19.17 − j440.76 A

These are the anticipated residual currents (sum of the three-phase currents) flowing
through Feeder 1 and Feeder 2 respectively, given the impedance imbalance in Feeder
2's phase A and the parallel operation.