rows were known as periods.
Descrip on of Mendeleev’s Periodic Table
(i) In the periodic table, the elements are arranged in ver cal rows called groups and horizontal rows
known as periods.
(ii) There are nine groups indicated by Roman Numerals as I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII and zero. Group
VIII consists of nine elements which are arranged in three triads. The zero group contains elements
belonging to inert gases or noble gases and elements present have zero valency.
(iii) There are seven periods (numbered from 1 to 7) or, horizontal rows in the Mendeleev’s periodic
table.
Importance of Mendeleev’s Periodic Table
(i) This made the study of the elements quite systema c in the sense that if the proper es of one
element in a par cular group are known, those of others can be pridicted.
(ii) This helped to a great extent in the discovery of these elements at a later stage.
(iii) Mendeleev corrected the atomic masses of certain elements with the help of their expected
posi ons and proper es.
Defects in Mendeleev’s Periodic Table
(i) Hydrogen has been placed in group IA along with alkali metals. But it also resembles halogens of
group VII A in many proper es. Thus, its posi on is the Mendeleev’s periodic table is controversial.
(ii) Although the elements in the Mendeleev’s periodic table have been arranged in order of their
atomic masses, but in some cases the element with higher atomic mass precedes the element with
lower atomic mass.
(iii) We know that the isotopes of an element have different atomic masses but same atomic number.
Since, periodic table has been framed on the basis of increasing atomic masses of the elements,
different posi ons must have been allo ed to all the isotopes of a par cular element.
(iv) According to Mendeleev, the elements placed in the same group must resemble in their
proper es. But there is no similarity among the elements in the two sub-groups of a par cular
group.
(v) In some cases, elements with similar proper es have been placed in different groups.
(vi) Lanthanoids and ac noids were placed in two separate rows at the bo om of the periodic table
without assigning a proper reason.
(vii) No proper explana on has been offered for the fact that why the elements placed in group show
(iii) They are highly reac ve.
(iv) Most of them impart colours to the flame.
(v) They generally form ionic compounds.
(vi) They are good conductors of heat and electricity. p-Block Elements
General electronic configura on: ns2np1-6
Characteris cs of p-block elements:
(i) The compounds of these elements are mostly covalent in nature.
(ii) They show variable oxida on states.
(iii) In moving from le to right in a period, the non-metallic character of the elements increases.
(iv) The reac vity of elements in a group generally decreases downwards.
(v) At the end of each period is a noble gas element with a closed valence shell ns2 np6 configura on.
(vi) Metallic character increases as we go down the group.
d-Block Elements
General electronic configura on: (n -1) d1-10 ns0-2
The d-block elements are known as transi on elements because they have incompletely filled d-
orbitals in their ground state or in any of the oxida on states.
Characteris cs of d-block elements:
(i) They are all metals with high mel ng and boiling points.
(ii) The compounds of the elements are generally paramagne c in nature.
(iii) They mostly form coloured ions, exhibit variable valence (oxida on states).
(iv) They are of tenly used as catalysts.
f-Block Elements
General electronic configura on: (n – 2) f1-14 (n -1) d0-1 ns2
They are known as inner transi on elements because in the transi on elements of d-block, the
electrons are filled in (n – 1) d sub-shell while in the inner transi on elements of f-block the filling of
electrons takes place in (n – 2) f subshell, which happens to be one inner subshell. Characteris cs of
f-Block elements:
(i) The two rows of elements at the bo om of the Periodic Table, called the Lanthanoids Ce (Z = 58) –
Lu (Z = 71) and Ac noids Th (Z = 90) – Lr (Z = 103).
(ii) These two series of elements are called Inner Transi on Elements (f-Block Elements).
(iii) They are all metals. Within each series, the proper es of the elements are quite similar.
(iv) Most of the elements pf the ac noid series are radio-ac ve in nature.
• Metals
Varia on in a Period: Along a period, the atomic radii of the elements generally decreases from le
to right.
Varia on in a group: The atomic radii of the elements in every group of the periodic table increases
as we move downwards.
• Ionic Radius
The ionic radii can be es mated by measuring the distances between ca ons and anions in ionic
• Electron Gain Enthalpy
Electron Gain Enthalpy is the energy released when an electron is added to an isolated gaseous atom
so as to convert it into a nega ve ion. The process is represented as:
For majority of the elements the electron gain enthalpy is nega ve. For example, the electron gain
enthalpy for halogens is highly nega ve because they can acquire the nearest noble gas configura on
by accep ng an extra electron.
In contrast, noble gases have large posi ve electron gain enthalpies because the extra electron has to
be placed in the next higher principal quantum energy level thereby producing highly unstable
electronic configura on.
Successive Electron Gain Enthalpies
We have studied that electrons from a gaseous atoms are lost in succession (i.e., one a er the
other). Similarly, these are also accepted one a er the other, i.e., in succession. A er the addi on of
one electron, the atom becomes nega vely charged and the second electron is to be added to a
nega vely charged ion. But the addi on of second electron is opposed by electrosta c repulsion and
hence the energy has to be supplied for the addi on of second electron. Thus the second electron
gain enthalpy of an element is posi ve.
For example, when an electron is added to oxygen atom to form O– ion, energy is released. But when
another electron is added to 0- ion to form O2- ion, energy is absorbed to overcome the strong
electrosta c repulsion between the nega vely charged 0– ion and the second electron being added.
Thus, first electron gain enthalpy:
Factors on which Electron Gain Enthalpy Depends
(i) Atomic size: As the size of an atom increases, the distance between its nucleus and the incoming
electron also increases and electron gain enthalpy becomes less nega ve,
(ii) Nuclear charge: With the increase in nuclear charge, force of a rac on between the nucleus and
the incoming electron increases and thus electron gain enthalpy becomes more nega ve.
(iii) Symmetry of the Electronic Configura on: The atoms with symmetrical configura on (having
fully filled or half filled orbitals in the same sub-shell) do not have any urge to take up extra electrons
because their configura on will become unstable.
In that case the energy will be needed and electron gain enthalpy (Δ eg H) will be posi ve. For
example, noble gas elements have posi ve electron gain enthalpies.
Varia on of Electron Gain Enthalpy Across a Period
It decreases down a group.
• Periodic Trends in Chemical Proper es along a Period
(i) Metallic character: Decrease across a period maximum on the extreme le (alkali metals).
(ii) Non-metallic character: Increasess along a period. (From le to right).
(iii) Basic nature of oxides: Decreases from le to right in a period.
(iv) Acidic nature of oxides: Increases from le to right in a period.
• Varia on from Top to Bo om on Moving Down a Group
(i) Metallic character. Generally increases because increase in atomic size and hence decrease in the
ioniza ort energy of the elements in a group from top to bo om.
(ii) Non-metallic character. Generally decreases down a group. As electronega vity of elements
decreases from top to bo om in a group.
(iii) Basic nature of oxides. Since metallic character or electroposi vity of elements increases in going
from top to bo om in a group basic nature of oxidise naturally increases.
(iv) Acidic character of oxides. Generally decreases as non-metallic character of elements decreases
in going from top to bo om in a group.
(v) Reac vity of metals. Generally increases down a group. Since tendency to lose electron increases.
(vi) Reac vity of non-metals. Generally decreases down the group, Higher the electro-nega vity of
non-metals, greater is their reac vity. Since electronega vity of non-metals in a group decreases
from top to bo om, their reac vity also decreases.
• Anomalous Proper es of Second Period Elements
The first element of each of the group 1 (lithium) and 2 (beryllium) and group 13-17 (boron to
fluorine) differs in many respect from the other members of their respec ve groups. For example,
lithium unlike other alkali metals, and beryllium unlike other alkaline earth metals
form compounds which have significant covalent character; the other members of these groups, pre-
dominatly form ionic compounds.