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Session
Introduction to Knitting

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Introduction
► The term knitting
describes the technique of
constructing textile structures
by forming a continuous
length of yarn into columns
of vertically intermeshed
loops.

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Session
Introduction
► Knitted fabrics have been gaining increased
popularity during the past two decade.

► Knitted fabrics are now widely used in the

applications where woven fabrics formerly

predominated.

► Today, the usage of knitted fabrics ranges from

hosiery, underwear, sweaters, slacks, to rugs and other

home furnishings. 7
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Session
Why Knits are popular?
► Knits fabric are usually
soft and drape well.

► It mold and move easily

with body moment.

► Its stretchability is good.

► It resist wrinkles.

► Most important perhaps is

that knits relate well to
contemporary life-styles.
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Session
History of Knitting

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History of Knitting
► Hand knitting has been practiced for thousands of

years. Where and how this art was invented is still a

mystery.

► From the beginning the art of knitting was an

occupation for women.

► Records seem to indicate that sweaters were first

knit in the 17th century.

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Session
History of Knitting
► The earliest example of true knitting is a pair of

knitting socks found in Egypt, dating back to A.D. 1100-

just over 9 centuries ago!

► Socks and stockings were knitted because they had

to be shaped to the foot or leg.

► By the 16th century knitting had advanced into a

craft
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History of Knitting
► In 1758: Jedediah Strutt has invented the double knit

► In 1847: Matthew Townsend obtains a patent for his

invention of the Latch Needle.

► In 1850: The Circular Machine has

been developed from the English

Circular Knitting Frame.

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History of Knitting
► In 1878: D Griswold gets a patent for a circular

machine, which can produce plain or ribbed fabric

tubes in any desired distribution.

► In 1910: The firm Robert Walter Scott in Philadelphia

was granted a patent for Interlock Fabric.

► In 1918: The first double cylinder, small circular

knitting machine with a double hook needle was built

by Wildt.
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Session
History of Knitting
► In 1920 : Besides flat knitting machines, increasing

use is made of circular knitting machines for the

fabrication of color patterned fabrics.

► After 1946, notable further developments were

made in circular knitting with regard to higher

performance & new products as result of an increase in
feeder numbers, a raise in production speeds and the
use of new needle technology.
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History of Knitting
► In 1963: The era of electronic begins and the first

electronic needle selection is demonstrated by Morat.

► In 1987: The firm Mayer & Cie begins with the serial

production of the RELAINT, a plain circular knitting

machine having a relative movement between Needles
and Sinkers.

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► In 1995 : Shima Seiki launched

computerised WHOLEGARMENT
knitting machines.

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Comparison

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Weaving
Weaving is the intersection of
two sets of straight threads,
warp and weft, which cross and
interweave at right angles to
each other.

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Knitting
Knitting is the interlooping of
yarn(s), which are interlaced in
a variety of ways to form a
fabric.

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Comparison

• Rigid • Weft Knit :

(Inextensible), Highly
High Elastic Extensible,
Recovery. Incomplete
Elastic Recovery

Woven Knitted

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Comparison

• Easy to Tear • Difficult to Tear

Woven Knitted

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Comparison

• Gets Crease And • Highly Crease

Wrinkled resistant

Woven Knitted

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Comparison

• Thinner Fabrics • Thicker fabrics

Woven Knitted

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Comparison

• Stiffer • Limb

Woven Knitted

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Comparison

• Air Permeability • Air Permeability

is Less is More

Woven Knitted

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Comparison

• Stronger Fabrics • Weaker Fabrics

coz High Twist in coz Less Twist in
Yarns Yarns

Woven Knitted

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Comparison

• Tested by • Tested by Multi-

Loading or Directional
Extending fabric Bursting
fabrics in Strength Test
Warp/Weft
Directions
Woven Knitted

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Comparison

• Rigid • Weft Knit :

(Inextensible), Highly
High Elastic Extensible,
Recovery. Incomplete
Elastic Recovery

Woven Knitted

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Knitting Terminology

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Machine Knitting
► Knitted structures are
progressively built-up from row
after row of intermeshed
loops.

► The newly-fed yarn is

converted into a new loop in
each needle hook.
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Session
Machine Knitting
► The needle then draws the

new loop head first through

the old (fabric) loop, which it
has retained from the
previous knitting cycle.

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Machine Knitting
► The needles, at the same

time, release, (cast-off or

knock-over) the old loops so
that they hang suspended by
their heads from the feet of
the new loops whose heads
are still held in the hooks of
the needles. 33
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Machine Knitting
► A cohesive knitted loop

structure is thus produced

by a combination of the
intermeshed needle loops
and yarn that passes from
needle loop to needle loop.

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Session
Loop Structure
► The knitted loop structure

may not always be noticeable

because of the effect of
structural fineness, fabric
distortion, additional pattern
threads or the masking effect
of finishing processes.
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Session
Loop Structure
► Knitted loops are arranged

in rows, roughly equivalent to

the weft and warp of woven
structures. These are termed
‘courses’ and ‘wales’
respectively.

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Session
Courses
► Courses are ROWS of loops across the width of

fabrics, it is measured in units of (Courses / cm )

►The number courses

determine the LENGTH of

fabric.

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Session
Wales
► Wales are COLUMNS of loops across the length of

the fabrics, it is measured in units of (Wales / cm )

►The number of wales

determine the WIDTH of

fabric.

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Session
Stitch Density
► Stitch density refers to the total number of loops in a

measured area of fabric and not to the length of yarn in

a loop (stitch length).

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Stitch Density
► Stitch Density is the product of the courses and

wales per unit length and is measured in units per

square per centimeter.

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Loop Length
► Loop length, measured in millimeters, is the length

of yarn in one knitted loop.

► It is one of the most important factors controlling

the properties of knitted fabrics.

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Loop Length
► Generally, the larger the stitch length, the more

open and lighter the fabric.

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Loop Length
► Loop length will affect the following parameters :

■ Tightness factor;

■ Fabric weight;

■ Fabric width;

■ Dimensional stability

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Session
Loop Length
Weight,
Tightness,
Stitch Density

Loop Length

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Cut & Gauge
► Cut and Gauge are expressions of fineness and

coarseness (closeness or openness) of stitches in

knitted materials.

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Cut & Gauge

Cut • Weft Knit Fabrics

• Warp Knit Fabrics

Gauge • Weft Knit Fabrics

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Cut & Gauge

6 Cut Fabric 6 Wales/Inch

16 Cut Fabric 16 Wales/Inch

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Cut & Gauge

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Cut & Gauge
► Given two similar fabrics made from the same fiber

and yarn size, the fabric with higher Gauge would be

more densely knitted, having stitches more compacted,
and would ordinarily considered

a better fabric.

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Cut & Gauge

Finer Fabric

Gauge

Coarser
Fabric
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Technically Upright
► A knitted fabric is technically

upright when its courses run

horizontally and its wales run
vertically, with the heads of the
needle loops facing towards the
top of the fabric and the course
knitted first situated at the
bottom of the fabric.
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Session
Design Appearance
Requirements
► The terms technical face, technical back, and upright

are purely technically descriptive terms.

► They do not necessarily indicate the orientation of

the fabric from the designer’s viewpoint.

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Session
Design Appearance
Requirements
For example:

► Socks and ladies hosiery are

usually worn upside-down

compared to their sequence of
production.

► The technical back of structures

is often used for plush and pile

effects. 54
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Session
Design Appearance
Requirements
For example:

► Curtains may be hung

sideways compared to the
wales.

► Diagonal stripes may be

achieved for dress-wear by
cutting the fabric at an angle.
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4 5 6

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Session
Knitting Needles

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Session
Heart of Knitting
In all Knitting Machines, the main element for
intermeshing of loop is ‘the needle’.

Needle is the Heart of any Knitting Machine.

The quality of the Knitted fabric is largely

dependent on the effectiveness and accuracy

of the loop forming element such as NEEDLE.

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Session
Heart of Knitting
Small variations in the needle
manufacture can lead to irregular
fabric.

The surface of needles should be

highly polished allowing the yarn
and the loop to slide free.

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Heart of Knitting
The needle must have high
strength and toughness to give
durability.

A typical must perform a several

million knitting actions without
fault.

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Session
Types of Needles

Beard Latch Compound

Do Not Copy
Simplest, but
requiring another Two independent
element to control Self acting
controlled part
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Session
Beard Needle
► This is the simplest and cheapest

► It requires an additional element to

Do Not Copy
close the beard during knitting

►A knitting section occupies a

considerable amount of space, thus
limiting productivity.

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Session
Beard Needle
► Individual loop formation has to be

achieved by a loop forming element. This

Do Not Copy
leads to a more complicated knitting
action but also provides for a more gentle
and careful loop formation.

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Session
Beard Needle
► The invention of Beard Needle in 1589

by Rev. William Lee.

Do Not Copy
► The needles can set vertically or
horizontally.

► The needle has the disadvantage of

requiring a pressing edge to close the

bearded hook.

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Session
Beard Needle
►The presser may be in the form of a bar,

blade, verge or wheel.

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► Finer in Cross Section, therefore, More

needles in unit space. Hence Finer Gauge

(60 needles/per inch) can be achieved.

► Less expensive.

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Session
Beard Needle
► High Wear and Break Easily.

► Strain on Yarn is Less.

Do Not Copy
► No possibility of Fluff or Lint
accumulation on needle.

► Most of the WARP Knitting machines use

Beard Needle.

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 04

Session
Beard Needle
► A bearded needle shown with the beard

in the open and closed positions.

Do Not Copy
► The needle consists of five main parts.

■ Stem

● used with the jack sinkers to form

new loops.

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 04

Session
Beard Needle
■ Head

● the point at which the stem is

Do Not Copy
bent to form the beard.

● helps to draw the new loop

through the old loop.

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Session
Beard Needle
■ Beard

● the needle continues from the

Do Not Copy
head to be turned back on itself to
form the beard.

● The beard is used to trap new

loops while old loops are pushed

over the top.

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Session
Beard Needle
■ Groove or Eye

● cut in the stem to receive the

Do Not Copy
pointed tip of the beard when it is
pressed, thus enclosing the new loop.

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 04

Session
Beard Needle
■ Shank

● bent for individual location

Do Not Copy
in the machine or cast with
others in a metal ‘lead’.

●The shank is used to attach

the needle to the frame.

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Session
The Knitting Action

Do Not Copy

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The Knitting Action
► The presser may be in the form of a bar, blade, verge

or wheel, with either the presser or the needle

remaining stationary whilst the other element moves
towards it.

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vasantkothari@[Link] 22
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Session
Latch Needle
► It is self-acting or loop-controlled needle Do Not Copy

and is sometimes termed the ‘automatic’

needle.

► It is the most widely used needle in weft

knitting.

► It is ideally suited for use with computer-

controlled electronic selection devices.

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Session
Latch Needle
► It makes a longer stroke in the cycle of Do Not Copy

knitting action.

► The Latch needle takes a longer time to

knit a loop and hence the knitting machine

is generally found lower.

► These are expensive, because of the

assembly of the needle and latch.

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Session
Latch Needle: Features
► The hook, which draws and
retains the new loop.
► The slot or saw cut, which
receives the latch-blade.
► The cheeks or slot walls, which Do Not Copy
are either punched or riveted to
fulcrum the latch blade.

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 05

Session
Latch Needle: Features
► The rivet, which may be

plain or threaded. This has

been dispensed with on
most plate metal needles, by
pinching in the slot walls to
retain the latch blade.

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Latch Needle: Features
Do Not Copy
► The latch-blade, which locates the

latch in the needle.

Do Not Copy

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Latch Needle: Features
Do Not Copy
► The latch spoon, which is an extension of

the blade, and bridges the gap between the

hook and the stem covering the hook when
closed.

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Session
Latch Needle: Features
► The stem, which carries the loop in the

clearing or rest position.

► The tail, which is an extension below the

butt, giving additional support to the

needle and keeping the needle in its trick.

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 05

Session
Latch Needle: Features
Do Not Copy
► The butt, which enables the needle to be

reciprocated when contacted by cam

profiles on either side of it, forming a track.

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Session
The Knitting Action

Do Not Copy

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The Knitting Action

► The rest position Do Not Copy

► Latch opening

► Clearing height

► Yarn feeding and latch closing

► Knocking-over and loop length formation

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Session
The Knitting Action
► The rest position

■ The head of the needle hook is level with the top

of the verge of the trick. The loop formed at the
previous feeder is in the closed hook. It is prevented
from rising as the needle rises, by holding-down
sinkers or web holders that move forward between
the needles to hold down the sinker loops.

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Session
The Knitting Action
► Latch opening

■ As the needle butt passes up the incline of the

clearing cam, the old loop, which is held down by

the sinker, slides inside the hook and contacts the
latch, turning and opening it.

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Session
The Knitting Action
► Clearing height

■ When the needle reaches the top of the cam, the

old loop is cleared from the hook and latch spoon on

to the stem. At this point the feeder guide plate acts
as a guard to prevent the latch from closing the
empty hook.

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Session
The Knitting Action
► Yarn feeding and latch closing

■ The needle starts to descend the stitch cam so

that its latch is below the verge, with the old loop
moving under it. At this point the new yarn is fed
through a hole in the feeder guide to the
descending needle hook, as there is no danger of
the yarn being fed below the latch. The old loop
contacts the underside of the latch, causing it to
close on to the hook.
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Session
The Knitting Action
► Knocking-over and loop length formation.

■ As the head of the needle descends below the top

of the trick, the old loop slides off the needle and
the new loop is drawn through it. The continued
descent of the needle draws the loop length. The
distance is determined by the depth setting of the
stitch cam, which can be adjusted.
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Session
Advantages of Latch
► The latch needle has the major
advantage of being self-acting.

► It is ideally suited for use with computer-

controlled electronic selection devices.

► Latch needles can operate at any angle

but often require a latch-guard or latch-

opening facilities
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Session
Advantages of Latch
► Variation of the height
of vertical reciprocation of
a latch needle at a feeder
can produce either
missing, tucking or
knitting, and depth of
descent normally Do Not Copy
determines loop length.

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Session
Disadvantages of Latch
► Latch needles are thick and rigid

► Needle deflection is difficult.

► It imposes a certain strain on yarn.

► There is also a possibility of fluff or lint accumulation

on the latch due to rubbing action of the yarn on the

needle.

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Session
Comparison

• Required another • Self acting needle

element to close
the hook

Beard Latch
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Session
Comparison

• Beard Needles are • Latch needles are

thin and flexible thick and rigid

Beard Latch
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Session
Comparison

• Usually mounted • Usually mounted

on finer gauge on coarser gauge

Beard Latch
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Session
Comparison

• It wears and • Strong in nature

breaks easily

Beard Latch
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Session
Comparison

• No strain on yarn • Imposes certain

strain on yarn

Beard Latch
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 05

Session
Comparison

• It makes a shorter • It makes a longer

stroke in the stroke in the
knitting cycle knitting cycle

Beard Latch
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Session
Comparison

• Stitches are tight • Stitches are loose

and minimum loop
robbing

Beard Latch
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Session
Comparison

• No Fly and Fluff • Due to rubbing, Fly

generation and Fluff
generation is high

Beard Latch
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Session
Comparison

• Time required to • Takes longer time

knit the loop is less to knit the loop

Beard Latch
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 05

Session
Comparison

• The speed of the • The speed of the

machine is high machine is less

Beard Latch
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vasantkothari@[Link] 51
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Session
Compound Needle
► Compound needles consist of two

separately-controlled parts – the open

hook and the sliding closing element
(tongue, latch, piston, plunger).

► It is most popular in Warp Knitting

m/c.

► Strain is not put on the yarn.

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Session
Compound Needle
► Both members of
Compound Needle have a
Do Not Copy
straight moment, thus the
knitting speed can be
increased.

► These are very expensive to

manufacture.

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Session
Compound Needle
Compound Needles are also consist of Hallow steel tube
of finer guage in which a hook closing element, which is
also a steel tube of fine guage, is inserted

Do Not Copy
Do Not Copy

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Session
Comparison

• Self acting • Consist of two

needle separately-
controlled parts

Latch Compound

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Session
Comparison

• Less Expensive • Very Expensive

Latch Compound

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Session
Comparison

• Preferred for • Preferred for

Weft Knitting Warp Knitting

Latch Compound

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Session
Comparison

• Vibration is • Short, smooth,

more simple harmonic
movement, so
there is less
vibration.
Latch Compound

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Session
Comparison

• Yarns are under • No stress on

stress yarn

Latch Compound

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Session
Comparison

• The vertical • The vertical

clearing height is clearing height is
very good not so good

Latch Compound

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Session
Comparison

• Latch needles • The needle can

produces the knit tight,
long & narrow uniform stitches
loops that tend to be
rounder
Latch Compound

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Session
Comparison

• Latch needles • Because of its

are relatively slim construction
thick and short hook
fine warp knitted
are possible
structures
Latch Compound

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Session
Comparison

• Speed is • Can work at high

relatively less speed

Latch Compound

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Session
Common Points
► The three needles considered above, while differing

in design, have the following points in common..

■ Hook – to take & hold newly fed yarn

■ Closing Mechanism – to allow the held loop to

leave the needle.

■ Stem

■ Control Butt – for individual or collective

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Session
Knitting Elements

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Session
Sinker
► The sinker is the second
primary knitting element (the
needle being the first).
Do Not Copy
► It is a thin metal plate with an
individual or a collective action
operating approximately at right
angles from the hook side of the
needle bed, between adjacent
needles.
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Session
Sinker
► It perform one or more of the following functions,

dependent upon the machine’s knitting action and

consequent sinker shape and movement:

■ Loop formation

■ Holding-down

■ Knocking-over

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Session
Loop Formation
► On bearded needle weft knitting
machines of the straight bar the
main purpose of a sinker is to sink Do Not Copy
the newly laid yarn into a loop as
its forward edge or catch (C)
advances between the two
adjacent needles.

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Session
Holding-Down
► The second and more common function of sinkers

on modern machines is to hold down the old loops at a

lower level on the needle stems than the new loops
that are being formed, and to prevent the old loops
from being lifted as the needles rise to clear them from
their hooks.

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Session
Holding-Down
► The protruding nib or nose of

sinker (N) is positioned over the

sinker loop of the old loop (O), Do Not Copy
preventing it from rising with the
needle.

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Session
Knocking-Over
► The third function of the sinker – as a

knock-over surface – is illustrated in Fig.

where its upper surface or belly (B)
supports the old loop (O) as the new
loop (NL) is drawn through it.

Do Not Copy

vasantkothari@[Link] 71
 06

Session
The Jack
► The jack is a secondary weft knitting element which

may be used to provide versatility of latch needle

selection and movement.

► It is placed below and in the same trick as the needle

and has its own operating butt and cam system.

vasantkothari@[Link] 72
vasantkothari@[Link] 73
 07

Session
Cams

Do Not Copy

vasantkothari@[Link] 74
 07

Session
Cams
► All needles have a reciprocating action. Cams are the

devices which convert the rotary machine drive into a

suitable reciprocating action for the needles and other
elements.
Do Not Copy

vasantkothari@[Link] 75
 07

Session
Knitting Cams

Do Not Copy

vasantkothari@[Link] 76
 07

Session
Knitting Cams
The angular knitting cam acts directly onto the butts of
needles or other elements to produce individual or
serial movement in the tricks of a latch needle weft
knitting machine.

vasantkothari@[Link] 77
 07

Session
Knitting Cams
► Two arrangements exist:

■ Revolving cylinder machines – the needle butts

pass through the stationary cam system and the

fabric hanging from the needles revolves with them.

■ Rotating cam-box circular machines – the cams

with the yarn feeds pass across the stationary

needle beds.

vasantkothari@[Link] 78
 07

Session
Knitting Cams
► In weft knitting, the yarn feed position is fixed in

relation to the cam system

► The yarn feed moves

with or remains stationary

with the cam system,

as do the yarn packages

and tackle.

vasantkothari@[Link] 79
 07

Session
The needle cam race
consists of
1 Clearing Cam
2 Stitch Cam
3 Up-throw Cam
which are vertically
adjustable together for Do Not Copy
alteration of stitch length
4 Guard Cam
5 Return Cam
6 Guard Cam
The three sections of the
sinker cam race are
7 Race Cam
8 Sinker Withdrawing
Cam
9 Sinker-Return Cam,
which is adjustable in
accordance with the stitch
length. vasantkothari@[Link] 80
 07

Session
Knitting Cams
► The Raising Cam causes the needles to be lifted to

either tuck, clearing, loop transfer or needle transfer

height, depending upon machine design.

► The Swing Cam is fulcrummed so that the butts will

be unaffected when it is out of the track and it may also

be swung into the track to raise the butts.

vasantkothari@[Link] 81
 07

Session
Knitting Cams
►The Bolt Cam can be caused to descend into the cam

track to control the element butts or be withdrawn out of

action so that the butts pass undisturbed across its face;
it is mostly used on garment-length machines to produce
changes of rib set-outs.

vasantkothari@[Link] 82
 07

Session
Knitting Cams
► The Stitch Cam controls the depth to which the

needle descends, thus controlling the amount of yarn

drawn into the needle loop; it also functions
simultaneously as a knock-over cam.

vasantkothari@[Link] 83
 07

Session
Knitting Cams
► The Upthrow Or Counter Cam takes the needles

back to the rest position and allows the newly-formed

loops to relax. The stitch cam is normally adjustable for
different loop lengths and it may be attached to a slide
together with the upthrow cam, so that the two are
adjusted in unison.

vasantkothari@[Link] 84
 07

Session
Knitting Cams
► The Guard Cams are often placed on the opposite

side of the cam-race to limit the movement of the butts

and to prevent needles from falling out of track.

vasantkothari@[Link] 85
 07

Session
Yarn Feeding
► Yarn feeding involves either

■ moving the needles past the stationary yarn feed

or

■ moving the yarn past the stationary needle bed.

vasantkothari@[Link] 86
 07

Session
Yarn Feeding
► As When the yarn moves past the needles, the fabric

will be stationary because the loops hang from the

needles.

► This arrangement exists on all warp knitting

machines, and on weft knitting machines with straight

beds and circular machines with stationary cylinders
and dials.

vasantkothari@[Link] 87
 07

Session
Yarn Feeding
► Most circular weft knitting machines have revolving

needle cylinders and stationary cams, feeders and yarn

packages.

► In this case, the fabric tube must revolve with the

needles, as must the fabric rollers and take-up

mechanism.

vasantkothari@[Link] 88
vasantkothari@[Link] 1
vasantkothari@[Link] 2
Sessions

8 9

vasantkothari@[Link] 3
vasantkothari@[Link] 4
 08

Session
Knitted Loop Structure

vasantkothari@[Link] 5
 08

Session
Needle Loop
► The needle loop is the basic

unit of knitted structure.

Do Not Copy
► It consists of a head and two

side limbs or legs.

vasantkothari@[Link] 6
 08

Session
Needle Loop
► At the base of each leg is a

foot, which meshes through the

head of the loop formed at the Do Not Copy
previous knitting cycle, usually by
that needle.

► The yarn passes from the foot

of one loop into the foot and leg

of the next loop formed by it.
vasantkothari@[Link] 7
 08

Session
Sinker Loop
► The sinker loop is the piece of

yarn that joins one weft knitted

Do Not Copy
needle loop to the next.

vasantkothari@[Link] 8
 08

Session
Sinker Loop
► Sinker loops show on the

opposite side of the fabric to the

Do Not Copy
needle loops because the needle
loop is drawn onto the opposite
side from which the yarn was
originally fed.

vasantkothari@[Link] 9
 08

Session
Wrapping
► Wrapping is a method of producing vertically-

orientated patterning with warp threads on a single

jersey weft knitted base structure.

► Specially controlled warp thread guides are used

which make unidirectional warp knitted overlaps into

selected needle hooks.

vasantkothari@[Link] 10
 08

Session
Wrapping
► If selected empty needle hooks rise to receive the

warp yarn (as is the case on a few single jersey

machines), pure wrapping or warp insertion is
produced.

► If, however, wrapping takes place on needles, all of

which already hold a ground yarn at that knitting cycle,

embroidery plating or wrap striping is produced.

vasantkothari@[Link] 11
 08

Session
Knitted Stitch
► The knitted stitch is the basic unit of

intermeshing.

► It usually consists of three or more

intermeshed needle loops.

► The centre loop has been drawn through

the head of the lower previously-formed

loop and is, in turn, intermeshed through its
head by the loop above it.
vasantkothari@[Link] 12
 08

Session
Face Loop Stitch
► The face side of the stitch

shows the new loop coming

towards the viewer as it passes
over and covers the head of the
Do Not Copy
old loop.

► It is referred to as the right

side in mainland Europe.

vasantkothari@[Link] 13
 08

Session
Face Loop Stitch
►Face loop stitches tend to

show the side limbs of the

needle loops or overlaps as a
series of interfitting ‘V’s.
Do Not Copy
► The face loop-side is the

underside of the stitch on the

needle.
vasantkothari@[Link] 14
 08

Session
Face Loop Stitch

Do Not Copy

Do Not Copy

vasantkothari@[Link] 15
 08

Session
Reverse Loop Stitch
► This is the opposite side of

the stitch to the face loop-side

and shows the new loop
meshing away from the viewer
Do Not Copy
as it passes under the head of
the old loop.

vasantkothari@[Link] 16
 08

Session
Reverse Loop Stitch
► It is referred to as the left

side on the mainland of Europe.

► Reverse stitches show the

sinker loops in weft knitting and

Do Not Copy
the underlaps in warp knitting
most prominently on the
surface.

vasantkothari@[Link] 17
 08

Session
Reverse Loop Stitch

Do Not Copy
Do Not Copy

vasantkothari@[Link] 18
 08

Session
Loop Stitch

D o N o t C o p y

vasantkothari@[Link] 19
 08

Session
Loop Stitch

D o N o t C o p y

vasantkothari@[Link] 20
 08

Session
Loop Stitch

Do Not Copy

vasantkothari@[Link] 21
 08

Session
Knit Stitch

Do Not Copy

vasantkothari@[Link] 22
 08

Session
Tuck Stitch
► A tuck stitch is made when

a needle takes a new loop

without clearing the
previously formed loop, so
that loops are accumulated
on the needles. Do Not Copy

vasantkothari@[Link] 23
 08

Session
Tuck Stitch
► The number of consecutive

tucks on any one needle is

limited by the amount of yarn
that the needle can hold, with
Do Not Copy
the maximum usually being
between 4-5 loops.

vasantkothari@[Link] 24
 08

Session
Tuck Stitch
► Tuck stitches tends to reduce the length of the fabric

and increase its width, resulting in the fabric in the

fabric being thicker with less extension in the width.

Do Not Copy

vasantkothari@[Link] 25
 08

Session
Tuck Stitch

Tucking over four

Do Not Copy adjacent plain needles

vasantkothari@[Link] 26
 08

Session
Tuck Stitch

Do Not Copy Do Not Copy

vasantkothari@[Link] 27
 08

Session
Miss Stitch
► A miss stitch is produced

by a needle holding the old

loop (the needle is not raised,
which effectively means the
needle is missed), while the
two adjacent needles are
raised and cleared to produce Do Not Copy
a new knitted loop.
vasantkothari@[Link] 28
 08

Session
Miss Stitch
► The introduction of miss

stitches results in the fabric

becoming narrower in width,
since the wales are pulled
closer together and the held
loop ‘robs’ yarn from adjacent Do Not Copy
loops. This tends to improve
the fabric stability
vasantkothari@[Link] 29
 08

Session
Miss Stitch
►The float will lie freely on the reverse side of the held

loop and in the case of rid & interlock it will be inside

the fabric.

Do Not Copy

vasantkothari@[Link] 30
 08

Session
Miss Stitch

Floating across four

adjacent plain needles

Do Not Copy

vasantkothari@[Link] 31
 08

Session
Miss Stitch

Do Not Copy

vasantkothari@[Link] 32
 08

Session
Miss Stitch

Do Not Copy

vasantkothari@[Link] 33
 08

Session
Do Not Copy Successive tucks and floats
on the same rib needle

vasantkothari@[Link] 34
vasantkothari@[Link] 35
 09

Session
Knitting Notations
► A knitting notation is a simple,

easily-understood, symbolic
representation of a knitting repeat
sequence and its resultant fabric
Do Not Copy
structure that eliminates the need
for time-consuming and possibly
confusing sketches and written
descriptions.
vasantkothari@[Link] 36
 09

Session
Point Paper
► Each point represents a needle in plan view from

above and, after the thread path has been drawn, it

also Represents its stitch.

► Each horizontal row of points thus represents

adjacent needles during the same knitting cycle and the

course produced by them.

►The lowest row of points represents

the starting course in knitting

vasantkothari@[Link] 37
 09

Session
Graph/Squared Paper

► This method is developed by the Leicester School of

Textiles for weft knitting only.

► In this method each square representing a needle or

stitch.

► An ‘X’ symbol is placed in a square where a face

stitch occurs and an ‘O’ where there is a reverse stitch.

vasantkothari@[Link] 38
 09

Session
Graph/Squared Paper
► When notating each stitch, it is necessary to

examine the intermeshing direction at the base of the

loop because the intermeshing at its head determines
the direction of the intermeshing of the new loop
formed above it.

vasantkothari@[Link] 39
 09

Session
Pattern Representation

vasantkothari@[Link] 40
 09

Session
Pattern Representation
► Different pattern papers are used depending on the

type of fabric being knitted.

► Types of pattern paper

■ Plain and purl knitted structures are represented

using pattern paper with equal squares

■ Rib and interlock knitted structures are

represented using pattern paper with different size
squares vasantkothari@[Link] 41
 09

Session
Pattern Representation

Do Not Copy

vasantkothari@[Link] 42
 09

Session
Single-faced Structures

► Single-faced structures are

Do Not Copy
produced in warp and weft knitting by

the needles (arranged in either a straight

line or a circle, with their hooks facing

outwards) operating as a single set.

vasantkothari@[Link] 43
 09

Session
Double-faced Structures
► Double-faced structures are
produced in weft and warp
knitting when two sets of
independently-controlled needles
are employed with the hooks of
Do Not Copy
one set knitting or facing in the
opposite direction to the other
set.
vasantkothari@[Link] 44
 09

Session
Balanced Structure
► A balanced structure is a double-faced structure that

has an identical number of each type of stitch produced

on each needle bed which therefore show on each
fabric surface, usually in the same sequence.

► Balanced structures need not, however, have the

same design in coloured yarn on either surface.

► Such structures do not normally show curling at

their edges.
vasantkothari@[Link] 45
 09

Session
Tubular Structure
Tubular fabric may be produced in double-faced or
single-faced structures on circular machines; or in a
single-faced form on straight machines with two sets of
needles, provided each needle set only knits at
alternate cycles and the yarn only passes across from
one needle bed to the other at the two selvedge
needles at each end, thus closing the edges of the tube
by joining together the two single-faced fabrics
produced on each needle set.
vasantkothari@[Link] 46
 09

Session
Tubular Structure
Tubular double faced fabrics can be produced on
straight machines with two sets of needles, needle bed
racking and transfer facilities, provided empty
complimentary needles are always available to receive
and transfer loops.

vasantkothari@[Link] 47
 © Copy Righted Material
vasantkothari@[Link] 1
© 2009
 © Copy Righted Material
vasantkothari@[Link] 2
© 2009
 Sessions

10 11 12

vasantkothari@[Link] 3
© 2009
 10

Session
vasantkothari@[Link] 4
© 2009
 Weft Knitting

vasantkothari@[Link] 5
© 2009
 10

Session
Comparison

Do not Copy
Do not Copy
vasantkothari@[Link] 6
© 2009
 10

Session
Do not Copy Do not Copy

Do not Copy Do not Copy

vasantkothari@[Link] 7
© 2009
 10

Session
Comparison

The loops are formed The loops are formed

across the width of vertically down the
fabric length of fabric

vasantkothari@[Link] 8
© 2009
 10

Session
Comparison

It possible to knit with Warp beam is used

ONE thread

vasantkothari@[Link] 9
© 2009
 10

Session
Comparison

Staple as well as Filament Yarn can be

Filament yarns can be worked Successfully.
worked Successfully (Staple: Size  Fluff)

vasantkothari@[Link] 10
© 2009
 10

Session
Comparison

Latch, Beard or
Latch Needles are used Compound Needles are
used

vasantkothari@[Link] 11
© 2009
 10

Session
Comparison

Less Versatile M/c More Versatile M/c

vasantkothari@[Link] 12
© 2009
 10

Session
Comparison

Change in Pattern does

Speed reduces with
not affect the Speed of
Design change in Cams
M/c

vasantkothari@[Link] 13
© 2009
 10

Session
Comparison

Fabric Quality is not Fabric Quality is

Consistent Consistent

vasantkothari@[Link] 14
© 2009
 10

Session
Comparison

Loops are not Uniform Loops are Uniform

vasantkothari@[Link] 15
© 2009
 10

Session
Comparison

Stretch in Widthwise
Stretch in Both Direction
Direction

vasantkothari@[Link] 16
© 2009
 10

Session
Comparison

Less Dimensional More Dimensional

Stability Stability

vasantkothari@[Link] 17
© 2009
 10

Session
Comparison

Cheaper To Produce Costlier To Produce

vasantkothari@[Link] 18
© 2009
 10

Session
Comparison

e.g. Circular Knitting e.g. Tricot & Raschel

machine machine

vasantkothari@[Link] 19
© 2009
 10

Session
Weft Knitting
► Weft knitting is the simplest method of converting a

yarn into a fabric.

Do not Copy

vasantkothari@[Link] 20
© 2009
 10

Session
Weft Knitting
► In weft knitting, the loops are formed across the

width of the fabric, and each weft thread is fed, more

or less, at right angles to the direction in which the
fabric is produced.

Do not Copy

vasantkothari@[Link] 21
© 2009
 10

Session
Weft Knitting
► It is possible to knit with only one thread or cone of

yarn, though production demands have resulted in

circular weft knitting machines being manufactured wit
up to 192 threads (feeders).

Do not Copy

vasantkothari@[Link] 22
© 2009
 10

Session
WEFT KNITTED FABRICS

► In woven fabric structures, three weaves, are called

basic Weaves viz. PLAIN, TWILL & SATIN.
► In a similar way in a weft knit structures the
following four structures are considered as basic Weft-
knit structures..
■ Plain Single Jersey Fabric
■ Rib Fabrics
■ Interlock Fabrics
■ Purl Fabrics

vasantkothari@[Link] 23
© 2009
 10

Session
WEFT KNITTED FABRICS

Plain Rib Purl Interlock

Single Fabric Fabric Fabric
Jersey

vasantkothari@[Link] 24
© 2009
 10

Session
Plain Single Jersey

Do not Copy

The three-dimensional structure of plain weft knitting magnified

x130 by a stereo scan electron microscope. The arrows indicate
the direction in which the fabric will tend to curl if it is cut.
vasantkothari@[Link] 25
© 2009
 10

Session
Do not Copy

vasantkothari@[Link] 26
© 2009
 10

Session
Do not Copy

vasantkothari@[Link] 27
© 2009
 10

Session
Do not Copy

Do not Copy Do not Copy

vasantkothari@[Link] 28
© 2009
 10

Session
Plain Single Jersey
► Plain single jersey is the

simplest weft knitted

structure that it is possible
to produce on one set of
needle.

vasantkothari@[Link] 29
© 2009
 10

Session
Plain Single Jersey
► Plain is the base structure of ladies’ hosiery, fully

fashioned knitwear.

vasantkothari@[Link] 30
© 2009
 10

Session
Plain Single Jersey
► The production rate is very high because of stitch

simplicity and its cost is low because of machine

simplicity.

vasantkothari@[Link] 31
© 2009
 10

Session
Plain Single Jersey
► If the yarn breaks, needle loops successively unmesh

down a wale and sinker loops unmesh up a wale.

vasantkothari@[Link] 32
© 2009
 10

Session
Plain Single Jersey
► The stitch length can be varied with cam setting

giving more courses per unit length with short stitch

length and vice versa.

Do not Copy

vasantkothari@[Link] 33
© 2009
 10

Session
Plain Single Jersey
► The properties such as rigidity, air permeability,

weight per unit area, bursting strength changes with

the stitch length.

Do not Copy

vasantkothari@[Link] 34
© 2009
 10

Session
Plain Single Jersey
► The fabric may appear thick of flimsy if the stitch

length is reduced or increased.

vasantkothari@[Link] 35
© 2009
 10

Session
Plain Single Jersey
► The fabric can be unroved from either end and if a

stitch is broken, the wale will disintegrate causing the

stitches in that line to undo or ladder.

vasantkothari@[Link] 36
© 2009
 10

Session
Plain Single Jersey
► When the fabric is used for the manufacturing of

Garments by cutting pattern pieces then sewing, some

difficulty can experienced during making up because
tends to curl as the ends and

sides unless it has been heat

set during the finishing.

vasantkothari@[Link] 37
© 2009
 10

Session
The Knitting Action
► Tucking in the hook or rest position: The sinker is

forward, holding down the old loop whilst the needle

rises from the rest position.
Do not Copy

vasantkothari@[Link] 38
© 2009
 10

Session
The Knitting Action
► Clearing : The needle has been raised to its highest

position clearing the old Loop from its latch.

Do not Copy

vasantkothari@[Link] 39
© 2009
 10

Session
The Knitting Action
► Yarn feeding: The sinker is partially withdrawn

allowing the feeder to present its yarn to the

descending needle hook Do not Copy
and also freeing the old
loop so that It can slide up
the needle stem and
under the open latch
spoon.
vasantkothari@[Link] 40
© 2009
 10

Session
The Knitting Action
► Knock-over: The sinker is fully withdrawn whilst the

needle descends to knock-over its old loop on the

sinker belly.
Do not Copy

vasantkothari@[Link] 41
© 2009
 10

Session
The Knitting Action
► Holding-down: The sinker moves forward to hold

down the new loop in its throat whilst the needle rises
under the influence of the
upthrow cam to the rest
position where the head of
Do not Copy
the open hook just
protrudes above the sinker
belly.
vasantkothari@[Link] 42
© 2009
 10

Session
Cam

Do not Copy

vasantkothari@[Link] 43
© 2009
 10

Session
Technical Face
► Technical face of plain

weft knitted fabric consist

of face loop stitches only.

► It is smooth, with the

side limbs of the needle Do not Copy

loops having the
appearance of columns of
V’s in the wales.
vasantkothari@[Link] 44
© 2009
 10

Session
Technical Back
► Technical back of the

plain knitted fabric consist

of the reverse stitches only.

► Plain can be unroved

from the course knitted last

Do not Copy
by pulling the needle loops
through from the technical
back.
vasantkothari@[Link] 45
© 2009
 10

Session
The Knitting Action

Do not Copy

vasantkothari@[Link] 46
© 2009
 10

Session
Plain knitting (back needles)
Do not Copy

Plain knitting (front needles)

Do not Copy

vasantkothari@[Link] 47
© 2009
 vasantkothari@[Link] 48
© 2009
 11

Session
Rib Fabric

vasantkothari@[Link] 49
© 2009
 11

Session
Rib Fabric
► The term Rib is used to describe a knitted fabric with

vertical rows (wales) of loops meshed in the opposite

direction to each other

vasantkothari@[Link] 50
© 2009
 11

Session
Do not Copy

vasantkothari@[Link] 51
© 2009
 11

Session
Do not Copy

vasantkothari@[Link] 52
© 2009
 11

Session
Rib Fabric
► Rib fabrics are generally produced on V-bed or

Circular machines.
►In both the cases, loop
formation is effectively
same, with V-bed
machines having a front
bed and a back bed, while
Do not Copy
Circular machines have a
cylinder and dial
vasantkothari@[Link] 53
© 2009
 11

Session
Rib Fabric
► It is a reversible structure, i.e. face and back side has

the same appearance in 1 x 1, 2 x 2, 3 x 3, ribs.

vasantkothari@[Link] 54
© 2009
 11

Session
Rib Fabric
► It is heavier and thicker structure than the plain knit

structure with similar gauge used. The rib machine also

requires finer yarn than a similar gauge plain machine.

vasantkothari@[Link] 55
© 2009
 11

Session
Rib Fabric
► It is a more expensive fabric to produce than plain.

vasantkothari@[Link] 56
© 2009
 11

Session
Rib Fabric
► The fabric does not curl

at the edges due to its

balanced nature. This Do not Copy
property of rib structure is
particularly useful in
cutting and sewing
operation.
Knitting Fabric Edge
Curling And Loop Distortion
vasantkothari@[Link] 57
© 2009
 11

Session
Rib Fabric
► Like all weft-knitted fabrics, it can be unroved from

the end knitted last by drawing the free loop heads

through to the back of each stitch.

vasantkothari@[Link] 58
© 2009
 11

Session
Rib Fabric

► The width occupied by 1x1

rib fabric is about half the

width of a plain produced on
the same number of needles,
but it does have nearly twice
as much elasticity in the width.

vasantkothari@[Link] 59
© 2009
 11

Session
Rib Fabric
► Rib fabrics are
extensively used in the
production of outwear
garments.

vasantkothari@[Link] 60
© 2009
 11

Session
Knitting Action

Do not Copy

vasantkothari@[Link] 61
© 2009
 11

Session
Knitting Action
► Clearing: The cylinder

and dial needles move

out to clear the plain and
rib loops formed in the
previous cycle.
Do not Copy

vasantkothari@[Link] 62
© 2009
 11

Session
Knitting Action
► Yarn Feeding: The needles

are withdrawn into their

tricks so that the old loops
are covered by the open
latches and the new yarn is
fed into the open hooks. Do not Copy

vasantkothari@[Link] 63
© 2009
 11

Session
Knitting Action
► The dial needle has
retracted before the
cylinder needle and is in
the process of knocking-
over the old loop.
Do not Copy

vasantkothari@[Link] 64
© 2009
 11

Session
Knitting Action
► Knocking-over: The
needles are withdrawn into
their tricks so that the old
loops are cast off and the
new loops are drawn
through them. Do not Copy

vasantkothari@[Link] 65
© 2009
 11

Session
Cam

Do not Copy

vasantkothari@[Link] 66
© 2009
 11

Session
Needle Timing
► Needle timing is the
relationship between the loop-
forming positions of the dial and
cylinder needles measured as the
distance in needles between the
two stitch cam knock-over points.

vasantkothari@[Link] 67
© 2009
 11

Session
Needle Timing
► Collective timing adjustment is achieved by moving

the dial cam-plate clockwise or anti-clockwise relative to

the cylinder; individual adjustment at particular feeders
(as required) is obtained by moving or changing the
stitch cam profile.

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Synchronised Timing
► If both the cylinder and dial

needles knock over together, to

produce loops of equal size, it is
known as Synchronised timing.

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Delayed Timing
► With delayed timing, the dial knock over occurs
after about four cylinder needles have drawn loops and
are rising slightly to relieve the strain.

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Delayed Timing
► The dial loops are thus larger than the cylinder loops

and the fabric is tighter and has better rigidity; it is also

heavier and wider, and less strain is produced on the
yarn.

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Technical Face

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Purl Fabric

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Purl Fabric

► 1 x 1 Purl fabric has loops

knitted to the front and back

on alternate courses, in the
contrast to a 1 x 1 rib fabric
which is knitted to the front
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and back on alternate wales.

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Purl Fabric
► Purl was originally spelt ‘pearl’ and was so named

because of its similar appearance to pearl droplets.

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Purl Fabric
► If on both sides of a relaxed weft knitted fabric only

reverse stitches are visible, then this is defined as a purl

knitted fabric.

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Purl Fabric
► Purl fabric will not Curl.

► Both sides are similar appearance.

► It will extend easily in the

lengthwise direction.

► It can unroved from either end.

► The fabric is commonly used for

Children’s Wear.
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Knitting Action

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# 1 Engagement of the head of the receiving slider with the

needle hook that was originally knitting from the opposing
bed.

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Knitting Action

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# 2 Cam action causing the head of the delivering slider

to pivot outwards from the trick and thus disengage
itself from the other hook of the needle.
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Knitting Action

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# 3 Sufficient free space to allow the heads of the

sliders to pivot outwards from their tricks during
engagement and disengagement of the needles.
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Knitting Action

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# 4 A positive action which maintains the engagement

of the head of a slider with a needle hook throughout
its knitting cycle by ensuring that it is pressed down
into the trick. vasantkothari@[Link] 84
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Notations

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Purl Fabric

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Interlock Fabric

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Interlock Fabric
► Interlock is a popular double jersey structure

produced on a cylinder and dial circular weft knitting

machine.

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Interlock is a interlocking of two 1 x 1 rib structures in
such a way that the face wale of fabric “1” is directly in
front of the ‘reverse wale’ of the rib fabric “2”.

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Interlock Fabric
► Interlock is a reversible fabric, which has a similar

smooth appearance on each side.

► It does not curl at the edges

► Fabric is thicker, stronger, less elastic and hence is

nearer to the woven structure so that cutting and

sewing operations are easier.

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Interlock Fabric

► Interlock fabric is heavier

and thicker than rib fabric

knitted with the same yarn.

► Consequently, finer yarns

are usually used to reduced

the area density of the
fabric.
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Interlock Fabric
► It unroves from the course knitted the last.

► The fabric becomes costlier due to thickness and less

production.

►Interlock is used for outwear fabrics (dress wear and

skirts), often using wool, acrylic and polyester yarns,

while cotton and polyester/cotton blends are used for
the production of underwear fabrics.
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Interlock Fabric

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►
►Figure shows the needle set

out on the machine, with long

and short needles alternating
on the cylinder.

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Interlock Fabric

Do not Copy►An interlock machine must have

the following:
►
1 Interlock gating, the
needles in two beds being
exactly opposite each other so
that only one of the two can
knit at any feeder.
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Interlock Fabric

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 Two separate cam systems in

►each bed, each controlling half

the needles in an alternate
sequence, one cam system
controlling knitting at one feeder,
and the other at the next feeder

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Interlock Fabric

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 Needles set out alternately, one

►
controlled from one cam system,
the next from the other; diagonal
and not opposite needles in each
bed knit together.

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Interlock Fabric

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►Long needle cams were arranged

►

for knitting at the first feeder and

short needle cams at the second
feeder.

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Interlock Fabric

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►At the first feeder, long needles

►
in cylinder and dial knit, and at the
second feeder short needles knit
together; needles not knitting at a
feeder follow a run-through track.

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Cam

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Notations

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Notations

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Notations

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Comparison

Definite face and Back

May be Reversible

May be Reversible

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Comparison
Stretches equally in length
and width

Greater Stretch in width

Greater Stretch in width

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Comparison
Knit Stitch on Face
Purl Stitch on Back

Knit and Purl Stitches

On Face and on Back

Knit and Purl Stitches

On Face and on Back
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Comparison
Highest machine
productivity

Next highest machine

productivity

Lowest machine
productivity
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Comparison
Uses: T shirts, Sweaters,
Full Fashion

Uses: Collars, Cuffs,

And trim

Uses: Infants’ wear,

Fancy garment parts
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16

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Weft Knitting Machines

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Introduction
► Weft knitting machines may be broadly grouped

according to end product as either:

■ circular machines, knitting

tubular fabric in a

continuous uninterrupted

length of constant width

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Introduction
■ flat and circular machines, knitting garment-length

sequences, which have a timing or counting device to

initiate an additional garment-length programming
(machine control) mechanism.

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Introduction
■This co-ordinates the
knitting action to produce a
garment length structural
repeat sequence in a wale-
wise direction. The garment
width may or may not vary
within the garment length.

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Fabric Machines

► Large diameter, circular,

latch needle machines, knit
fabric, at high speed, that is
manually cut away from the
machine (usually in roll form)
after a convenient length has
been knitted.

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Fabric Machines
► Most fabric is knitted on

circular machines, either single-

cylinder (single jersey) or cylinder
and dial (double jersey), of the
revolving needle cylinder type,
because of their high speed and
productive efficiency.

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Garment-length Machines
► Garment-length machines include straight bar
frames, most flats, hosiery, leg wear and glove
machines, and circular garment machines including
sweater strip machines,

producing knitwear,

outerwear & underwear.

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Garment-length Machines

► On these machines, the garment sequence control

with the timing/counting device, collectively termed

‘the machine control’, automatically initiates any
alteration to the other facilities on the machine needed
to knit a garment-length construction sequence instead
of a continuous fabric.

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Garment-length Machines
► Garments may be knitted to size either in tubular or

open-width; in the latter case more than one garment

panel may be knitted simultaneously across the knitting
bed.

►Large-diameter circular machines and wide V-bed flat

machines can knit garment blanks that are later split

into two or more garment widths

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Weft Knitting Machines

The three main groups of weft knitting

machinery may broadly be classified as
either straight bar frames, flats, or
circulars, according to their frame
design and needle bed arrangement.
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Straight Bar Machine

Weft Knitting
V Bed Machine
Machines

Circular Machine

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Sixteen-head plain straight bar frame having a conveyer for transporting.
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Straight Bar Machine
► Straight bar frames are a specific type of machine

having a vertical bar of bearded needles whose

movement is controlled by circular engineering cams
attached to a revolving cam-shaft in the base of the
machine.

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Straight Bar Machine
► The three directions of motion required for the

knitting action are provided from two separate sources.

► The rotary motion of the cam-shaft produces the

vertical and horizontal movement of the needle bar.

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Straight Bar Machine
► The sideways reciprocating movement for the yarn

carriers and for introducing the sinkers in serial

sequence via the slurcock is obtained from draw cam
attached to a shaft, set at right angles to the main cam-
shaft at the back of the machine, which oscillates a
draw lever.

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Straight Bar Machine
►A variable draw ensures that the stroke of the draw is

related to the varying knitting width.

► Thus, more courses per minute are knitted on

narrower widths. Operating speeds of a hundred

courses per minute can be achieved.

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Straight Bar Machine
► The length of the machine is divided into a number

of knitting heads (‘sections’ or ‘divisions’) and each

head is capable of knitting a separate but identically-
dimensioned fashion-shaped garment panel.

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Knitting Action

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Knitting head of the straight bar frame.

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Knitting Action
► A Bearded needle, having a cranked end for

location in the tricked and drilled needle bar.

► B Sinker - only 1 between every other needle space-

with a reinforced back and, at the front,a ‘catch’ to sink

the yarn around the needles,and a ‘neb’ to separate
the old and new loops until knock-over.

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Knitting Action
► C Divider, occupying each remaining space, usually

having the same shaped front as the sinker but with an

extended tail at the back.

►D Knocking-over bit – one directly beneath each

sinker and divider – having a ‘throat’ for holding the

loops and a ‘nose’ for knocking-over.

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Knitting Action
► E Needle bar, having a compound horizontal and

vertical movement.

►F Striking jack, fulcrummed at its lower end, each

one with its ‘nose’ resting on a sinker back, and a

‘spring’ exerting pressure on its ‘tail’.

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Knitting Action
►H Yarn carrier, which traverses in alternate directions

across the head from one course to the next – up to six

carriers may be available. The carrier is connected to a
reciprocating carrier rail by friction, and when the
carrier is arrested by its carrier stop, the carrier rail
completes its full traverse, driven by the coulier cam
and punching through the carrier friction.

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Knitting Action
► G Catch bar, extending the full width of the knitting

head, having forward and backward, as well as vertical,

movement.

► J Falling bar, which is a stop that cushions the

advance of the sinkers and dividers.

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Sinking (b). The slurcock (one for

Thread laying (a). The carrier moves each knitting head), travelling
across the knitting head, laying the behind the carrier, contacts the
yarn on the noses of the sinkers and jacks: it is shaped so that each jack
dividers and on the beard side of in turn pushes the sinker forwards
the needles. to kink a loop around every two
adjacent needles.
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Knitting Action

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Dividing (c). The catch bar moves Pressing (d) The needle bar descends,
the dividers forwards, collectively, placing the new loops inside the hooks
whilst the needle bar tips slightly of the beards. The catch bar is now
outwards to allow the double lowered so that the sinkers, as well as
loops to be divided into equal- the dividers, are collectively controlled
sized needle loops around every by it for the rest of the knitting cycle.
needle. 33
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Knitting Action

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landing (e). They now start to Completion of knock-over (f). The

withdraw. The needle bar moves needle bar descends to its lowest
towards the sinker verge, causing position. As the heads descend
the beards to be pressed. A below the belly of the knocking-over
further downward movement of bits, the old course of loops is
the needle collectively knocked-over.
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BEFORE f
Drop-Off. As the needle bar moves away from
the pressing-edge, the sinkers and dividers
withdraw so that the newly-formed course of
loops drops off their noses onto the knocking-
over bits.
AFTER f
Holding-Down. As the sinkers and dividers move
collectively forward to hold down the fabric, the
needle bar rises to the thread-laying position. The
catch bar is slightly raised to release the sinkers for
individual movement at the start of the next course.
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Session
V-Bed Machine

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V-bed machines have two rib gated, diagonally-approaching

needle beds, set at between 90 and 104 degrees to each other,
giving an inverted V-shape appearance.
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V-Bed Machine
► The modern v-bed knitting machine is a highly

engineered, fully automated, electronically controlled,

precision knitting system.

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Machine Architecture

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V-bed Machine
► On a v-bed machine, the two needle beds are

arranged in a V' configuration.

► The interactions between the yarn and the knitting

elements that create the fabric occur at the apex of the

V and the fabric moves away downward between the
two beds, drawn down by the take-down system.

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Do not Copy Do not Copy

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Knitting Action
1 The rest position. The tops of the
heads of the needles are level with
the edge of the knock-over bits.
The butts of the needles assume a
Do not Copy straight line until contacting the
raising cams R (R) because the
leading stitch cams S and AS (L) are
lifted to an inactive position. The lifting action is an alternating
action that always lowers the trailing stitch cams and raises the
leading stitch cams in each system as the traverse commences.
This action prevents needles from being unnecessarily lowered
and a strain being placed on the old loops prior to the start-up of
the knitting action.
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Session
Knitting Action
2 Clearing. The needle butts are lifted as they contact
the leading edge of cams R (R), which raises the
needles to ‘tucking in the hook’ height with the
undersurface of cams S (L) acting as guard cams.
The needles are lifted to full
clearing height as their butts
pass over the top of cardigan
cams C (R) and C (L).

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Knitting Action
3 Yarn feeding. The yarn is fed as the needles
descend under the control of guard cam (G). The
required loop length is drawn by each needle as it
descends the stitch cam S (R).

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Session
Knitting Action
4 Knocking-over. To produce synchronised knocking-over
of both needle beds simultaneously, the stitch cam S (R)
in the front system is set lower than the auxiliary stitch
cam AS (R), so that the latter is rendered ineffective.
If, however, delayed timing of
the knock-over is employed,
knock-over in the front bed
will occur after knock-over in
the back bed. Do not Copy

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Knitting Action
In this case, stitch cam S (R) is not set as low as AS (R)
(Number 5) so that the depth setting of the latter cam
produces the knock-over action. Delayed timing is only
normally used on gauges finer than 8 npi and cannot
be used for broad ribs.

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Session
Needle-bed Technology

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Circular Knitting
► The term ‘circular’ covers all those weft knitting

machines whose needle beds are arranged in circular

cylinders and/or dials, including latch, bearded, or (very
occasionally) compound needle machinery, knitting a
wide range of fabric structures, garments, hosiery and
other articles in a variety of diameters.

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Circular Knitting
► The modern circular knitting machine is a highly

engineered, electronically controlled, precision knitting

system capable of producing high quality fabric at very
high speeds in excess of one square metre/minute.

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Circular Knitting Machine

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Circular Knitting Machine
► 1,2 The top (1) and bottom (2) stop motions. These

are spring-loaded yarn supports that pivot downwards

when the yarn end breaks or its tension is increased.
This action releases the surplus yarn to the feeder, thus
preventing a press-off, and simultaneously completes a
circuit which stops the machine and illuminates an
indicator warning light.

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Circular Knitting Machine

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Circular Knitting Machine
► 3 Various spring-loaded detector points. These are

carefully positioned around the cylinder according to

their particular function. A pointer is tripped to stop
the machine by a fault or malfunctioning element such
as a yarn slub, fabric lump, needle head, latch spoon,
etc.

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Circular Knitting Machine

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Circular Knitting Machine
► 4 The tape positive feed (4A). This provides three

different speeds (course lengths) and is driven and can

be adjusted from the drive arrangement (4B).

► 5 The cylinder needle cam system for each feed –

contained in a single replaceable section and having an

exterior adjustment for the stitch cam slide.

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Circular Knitting Machine

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Circular Knitting Machine
► 6 The automatic lubrication system.

► 7 Start, stop and inching buttons

► 8 The cam-driven fabric winding down mechanism,

which revolves with the fabric tube.

► 9 The revolution counters for each of the three shifts

and a pre-set counter for stopping the machine on

completion of a specific fabric length (in courses).

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Circular Knitting Machine

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Circular Knitting Machine
► 10 Side creel (optional).

► 11 Lint blower. This reduces the

incidence of knitted-in lint slubs, to

improve quality when using open-
end spun yarns. It also reduces
cross-contamination by fibres from
other machines.
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Circular Knitting Machine

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Do not Copy

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Session
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Weft Knitting Calculation

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Calculation
► In any manufacturing
process, the calculations
regarding production,
efficiency and material
requirements are
primary importance.

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Session
Calculation
► The organization of machinery requirements, raw
material requirements and the costing of the finished
products, so as to determine the competitive selling
price, will mainly depends upon the correct
calculations.

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Session
Calculation
► Below are the most important Circular Knitting
machines calculations

■ Machine Speed

■ Number of feeds

■ Speed of fabric production

■ Weight of fabric produced

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Session
Machine Speed
► The speed of a circular machine may be expressed in
three ways: –

►As machine revolutions per minute.

►As circumferential speed in meters per second.

►As Speed Factor (rpm x diameter in inches).

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Session
Machine Speed
► The machine revolutions per minute is only relevant
to a specific machine and machine diameter.

► A larger-diameter machine, or one having more

patterning facilities, would be expected to run at less

revolution per minute

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Session
Machine Speed
► The circumferential speed in meters per second is a
constant for a range of machine diameters of the same
model and can be used to calculate the rpm for a
particular machine diameter.

► An average circumferential speed is about 1.5 m/sec;

2 m/sec is ‘high speed’.

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Session
Machine Speed
► Example: A 30-inch diameter machine runs at 40rpm.

Circumference of circle = πd,

πd = 3.142 x 30 inches,

πd = 94.26 inches or 239.4 cms,

In one minute the machine turns
2.4 meters x 40 (rev) = 96m.
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Session
Machine Speed
The circumferential speed is therefore
96/60 = 1.6 m/sec.
To convert circumferential speed to
rpm:
1.6 m/sec x 60 = 96m/min.

96 m/min divided by 2.4 = 40 rpm for a

30-inch diameter machine.
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Session
Machine Speed
► The Speed Factor (SF) is a constant obtained by
multiplying the rpm (e.g. 30) by the diameter in inches
(e.g. 30) = 900.

► As can be seen, rpm and diameter vary inversely to

each other – when the diameter increases, the rpm
decrease.

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Session
Machine Speed
► Modern high-speed fabric machines can operate in
factory conditions at speeds of 1.6 to 1.7 m/sec.

► Under laboratory conditions, speeds of 2.0m/sec

have been achieved.

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Session
Number of Feeds
► The number of feeds can be expressed as a total for
a particular cylinder diameter or as the number of
feeds per inch of the cylinder diameter, in which case
the total number of feeds for any cylinder diameter in
that particular range of machinery can then be
calculated.

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Session
Number of Feeds
► Example: A single-jersey 4-track machine with 3
feeds per diametral inch will have

► 12 x 3 = 36 feeds in a 12-inch diameter,

► 54 in an 18-inch diameter,

► 90 in a 30- inch diameter, &

►102 feeds in a 34-inch diameter.

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Session
Speed of Fabric Production

Speed Of Fabric Formation (Linear Meter / Hr)

(speed of machine in rpm x percent efficiency x

number of knitting feeders x 60 minutes)

(courses per cm x 100)

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Session
Speed of Fabric Production
► Calculate the length in meters of a plain, single-
jersey fabric knitted at
■ 16 courses/cm

■ on a 26-inch diameter
■ 28-gauge circular machine
■ having 104 feeds.

►The machine operates for 8 hours at 29 rpm at 95 per

cent efficiency.
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Session
Speed of Fabric Production
Speed Of Fabric Formation (Linear Meter / Hr)

speed of machine in rpm (8) x percent efficiency (0.95)

x number of knitting feeders (104) x 60 minutes

courses per cm (16) x 100

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Session
Speed of Fabric Production

Speed Of Fabric Formation (Linear Meter / Shift)

107.45 x 8 hrs

859.6 meters / Shift

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Session
Weight of Fabric Produced
► Another very simple way to calculate knitting
machine production by weighing the total production
of one hour or one shift or one day.
► In this method following information for production
calculation are required:
■ Machine Gauge and Diameter
■ RPM Knitting Machine
■ Yarn Count
■ Stitch Length
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Session
Weight of Fabric Produced

► From these figures we can calculate the length of

yarn being used by the machine in one hour and then
by converting this length into weight with the help of
count given we can calculate the quantity of yarn being
consumed by machine in one hour.

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Session
Weight of Fabric Produced

► This would be the optimum production of the

machine.

► This optimum production can be converted into

nominal production by multiplying it with efficiency.

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Session
Weight of Fabric Produced
► Calculate nominal production of a single jersey-
knitting machine per hour from the data given:
►Machine Gauge 24
►Machine Dia 30 inches
►Number of Feeders 90
►Machine RPM 26
►Yarn Count 24
►Stitch length 4 mm
►Efficiency 85%
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Session
Weight of Fabric Produced

► Step one

■ First we will calculate number of needles and

number of stitches produced in one revolution.

■ This would help us in calculating the total length

of yarn consumed in one revolution.

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Session
Weight of Fabric Produced
Number Of Needles machine dia x gauge x π

30 x 24 x 3.14

2260.80

2260
needles are always in even number so we will took
nearest even figure
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Session
Weight of Fabric Produced

■ Number of stitches produced in revolution

■ Every needle is making one stitch on every feeders

because machine is producing single jersey fabric

(full knit fabric).

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Session
Weight of Fabric Produced
Number of stitches
Number of Needles X
produced in one
Number of Feeders
revolution

2260 x 90

203400

This figure shows that machine is making 203400

stitches in one revolution.
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Session
Weight of Fabric Produced

► Step Two

■ Length of stitch is 04 mm (stitch length is always

calculated in metric system)

■ From this figure we can calculate yarn

consumption in yards in one hour

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Session
Weight of Fabric Produced
Yarn Consumption in one hour

number of stitches x length of (mm) x RPM x

60 (minutes)

1000(to convert mm into meters)

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Session
Weight of Fabric Produced
Yarn Consumption in one hour

number of stitches (203400) x length of (04) x RPM (26)

x 60 (minutes)

1000(to convert mm into meters)

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Session
Weight of Fabric Produced
Yarn Consumption in one hour

1269216 meters

1388015 yards

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Session
Weight of Fabric Produced

► Step Three

■ In previous step we calculated quantity of yarn

consumed in yards.

■ We can easily calculate weight of this yarn while

its count is known.

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Session
Weight of Fabric Produced

length of yarn
Weight of cotton yarn
Count x 840

1388015

24 x 840

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Session
Weight of Fabric Produced

Weight of cotton yarn 68.85 pounds

31.23 Kg

Efficiency @ 85% 26.55 Kg

This machine can produce 26.55 Kgs fabric

in one hour at 85 % efficiency
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Session
Weight of Fabric Produced
► For Filament yarn

► Calculate nominal production of a single jersey-

knitting machine per hour from the data given:

■ Machine Gauge 28
■ Machine Dia 26 inches
■ Number of Feeders 120
■ Machine RPM 30
■ Yarn Denier 75
■ Stitch length 4.5 mm
■ Efficiency 85%
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Session
Weight of Fabric Produced

► Step one

■ First we will calculate number of needles and

number of stitches produced in one revolution.

■ This would help us in calculating the total length

of yarn consumed in one revolution.

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Session
Weight of Fabric Produced
Number Of Needles machine dia x gauge x π

26 x 28 x 3.14

2285.92

2286
needles are always in even number so we will took
nearest even figure
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Session
Weight of Fabric Produced

■ Number of stitches produced in revolution

■ Every needle is making one stitch on every feeders

because machine is producing single jersey fabric

(full knit fabric).

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Session
Weight of Fabric Produced
Number of stitches
Number of Needles X
produced in one
Number of Feeders
revolution

2286 x 120

274320

This figure shows that machine is making 274320

stitches in one revolution.
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Session
Weight of Fabric Produced

► Step Two

■ Length of stitch is 4.5 mm (stitch length is always

calculated in metric system)

■ From this figure we can calculate yarn

consumption in meters in one hour

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Session
Weight of Fabric Produced
Yarn Consumption in one hour

number of stitches x length of (mm) x RPM x

60 (minutes)

1000(to convert mm into meters)

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Session
Weight of Fabric Produced
Yarn Consumption in one hour

number of stitches (274320) x length of (4.5) x RPM

(30) x 60 (minutes)

1000(to convert mm into meters)

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Session
Weight of Fabric Produced

Yarn Consumption in one hour

2221992 meters

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Session
Weight of Fabric Produced

► Step Three

■ In previous step we calculated quantity of yarn

consumed in yards.

■ We can easily calculate weight of this yarn while

its count (Denier) is known.

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Session
Weight of Fabric Produced

length in Meters x Denier

Weight of Filament
9000

2221992 x 75

9000

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Session
Weight of Fabric Produced

Weight of Filament 18516 grams

18.516 Kgs

Efficiency @ 85% 15.74 Kgs

This machine can produce 15.74 Kgs fabric

in one hour at 85 % efficiency
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Session
Relation Between Length,
Width & Grammage
► It was observed during interaction with the people
working in garment business that they face difficulties
in calculation related to grammage, width and length of
the fabric.

► In the following lines we will explain relationship

among these factors with examples.

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Session
Length, Width & Grammage

► Calculate weight of fabric from the given data.

■ Grammage 300 GSM

■ Width of fabric 35 inches (in tubular form)

■ Length of fabric 20 meters

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Session
Length, Width & Grammage

► First we will calculate area of the fabric

Area of fabric Fabric (length x width)

20 x 35 x 2

39.37

35.6 m2
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Session
Length, Width & Grammage

Weight of 35.6 m2 300 x 35.6

10680 Grams

10.680 Kgs

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Session
Length, Width & Grammage

► Calculate GSM from the data given

■ Total Weight of fabric 15.5 Kgs

■ Length of fabric 35 meters

■ Width of fabric in open form 65 inches

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Session
Length, Width & Grammage
►First we will calculate area of the fabric

Area of fabric Fabric (length x width)

35 x 65

39.37

57.75 m2
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Session
Length, Width & Grammage

Weight of 1 m2 15.50 / 57. 75

0.26839 Kgs

268.39 Grams

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Session
Yarn Length/Stitch
► Direct Measurement
yarn length per course
Yarn length per stitch
number of stitches in course

■ e.g. If 1500 needles being used in course, the measured

course length is 250 inches,
250
0.16 in
1500
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Session
Yarn Length/Stitch
► Using Yarn length meter
yarn speed (ft/min)
Yarn length per course
machine speed (rev/min)

■ e.g. Yarn travelling speed is 500 ft/min, and m/c is

knitting at 25 rev/min
500 20
ft/course
length or
25 RPM
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Session
Production Calculation
► Assumed the knitting machine is running at 25 rpm
with 60 feeders and the fabric density is measured
with cpi = 36, wpi = 27 (14.2 c/cm ; 10.6 w/cm) and
the fabric weight is 173 g/m2

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Session
Production Calculation
► Calculate

■ Production in length per hour

■ The production in weight per hour

■ Production in area

■ Feeder Density

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Session
Production Calculation

Production in length per hour

speed of machine in rpm (25) x percent efficiency x

number of knitting feeders (60) x 60 minutes

courses per Inch (36) x 36 inches

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Session
Production Calculation

Production in length per hour

69.4 yd/hr

63.4 m/hr

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Session
Production Calculation
►If the finished width is unknown, but the machine
details are given, such as 30 inches diameter, 20 gauge,
60 feeders, then the fabric width can be calculated as
follows:

Finished width Width x π x (Gauge/WPI)

30 in x 3.14 x 20/27

70 inches or 1.78 meters

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Session
Production Calculation

production in weight per hour

Production in Length per Hour (63.4) x percent

efficiency x Width of Fabric (1.78) x GSM (173)

1000 Grams

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Session
Production Calculation

Production in weight per hour

43 lb/hr

19.5 kg/hr

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Session
Production Calculation

Production in area Production in Length (63.4) x

Width of Fabric (1.78mtrs)

112.9 m2 /hr

Production in Length (69.4) x

Width of Fabric (70 Inches)

135 Yd2 /hr

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Session
Production Calculation
no. of feeders
Feeder Density
machine diameter

60 feeders

30 inches

2
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Session
Fancy Yarn
► Instead of simple single
yarn, fancy yarns can be
carefully knitted in the fabric
to give some interesting
results.

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Session
Fancy Yarn

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Session
Fancy Yarn

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Session
Fancy Yarn

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Session
Piece Dyeing
► Knitted pieces can be bleached , mercerized and
dyed by piece dyeing technique to give the solid colors.

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Session
Printing
► To attract the customers
some pictures or letters or
funny messages can be
printed on the garment.

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Session
Plated Jersey Fabric
► In this type of fabric the characteristics of one yarn
are visible on the surface composed of the face loop
stitches whilst the characteristics of the other yarn are
visible on the reverse surface composed of the reverse
stitches.

► Perfect pleating is difficult to achieve.

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Session
Plated Jersey Fabric
► Some times reverse or technical back is considered
as face side, if colored or fancy thread pattern appears
attractive from technical back side.

Do not Copy

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Session
Derivatives of Plain Knit
► The plain knit structures can be modified with
following alternatives

■ Knit and Miss

■ Knit and Tuck

Do not Copy
■ Knit, Miss & Tuck.

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Session
Derivatives of Plain Knit
► For knitting above types of modifications, the single
jersey machine is required to be provided with one of
the types of jacquard

Mechanisms for the

Do not Copy
needle selection

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Session
Derivatives of Plain Knit
► The principle mechanisms for needle selections are

■ Pattern wheels

■ multi step drum

■ perforated rolls

■ continuous tapes or bands

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Session
Knit and Miss
► Used for color pattern on single jersey machine

►By sharing the loops of a color yarn on the fabric

surface and hiding those unwanted color yarns at the

back in the form of float stitch.

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Session
Knit and Miss
Gauge 5, V-bed Knitting Sample

Do not Copy Do not Copy

Technical Face Technical Back

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Session
Knit and Miss
Eight Gauge V-bed Knitting

Do not Copy
Do not Copy

Technical Face Technical Back

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Session
Knit and Miss
Do not Copy

2-Colour Knit and

Miss jacquard

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Session
Knit and Miss

3-Colour Knit
and Miss Jacquard

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Session
Knit and Miss : Characteristics

► Narrower width

■The float yarn tends to pull the knit loops closer to each

other.

► Shorter in length

► Heavier in weight

■The fabric density is higher, together with float yarns at the

back.

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Session
Knit and Miss : Characteristics
►Fabric thickness

■ It will be thicker and becomes bucker because of extra float

yarn

► Surface Appearance
■ Good surface appearance on colour pattern

►Dimensional Stability

■ High stitch desnity with large amount of float yarn, it is

better in dimensional stability than plain fabric.

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Session
Knit and Miss : End-
End-uses

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Session
Knit and Tuck
► It is commonly used to produce single colour
structure with surface effect of fabric.
No float yarn at the back of the fabric

Do not Copy
Do not Copy

Technical Face Technical Back

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Session
Knit and Tuck : Characteristics

► Wider Width

■ The tuck stitch will increase the width of fabric

● eg. KTKTKT (fabric A); KKTKKTKK (fabric B)

▬ fabric A is wider than B

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Session
Knit and Tuck : Characteristics

►Shorter length

■ The tuck loop will reduce the fabric length

● KTKT KTKKKTK

● KTKT (A) KKTKKKT (B)

● KTKT KKKTKKK
▬ fabric A will be shorter than B

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Session
Knit and Tuck
► Fabric thickness and weight

■ fabric thickness will increase with the amount of

tuck stitch. The fabric density is lower than knit and

miss but is still heavier than plain

► Dimensional Stability

■ because of lower fabric density, it is not as stable

as knit and miss fabric

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Session
Knit and Tuck : Application
► Knit and Tuck fabric will never be used for
underwear because it is not smooth enough to contact
with the skin.

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Session
Knit, Tuck & Miss
► Also known as selective
accordian or 3-way technique.

►Similar to knit and miss

jacquard, except the insertion of
tuck stitch to tie-in the long float
threads at predetermined
interval.

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Session
Knit, Tuck & Miss
► Eg float length of 11 wales can be reduced to 5 wales
by inserting tuck stitch at the middle

■ fabric A= XX-----------XX

■ fabric B=XX-----T-----XX

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Session
Knit, Tuck & Miss : Characteristics

► Similar to knit and miss except the fabric density is

lower because of tuck stitch.

► Also fabric appearance and colour is not as clear as

knit and miss jacquard

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Session
Color Stripe Single jersey

Technical Face Technical Back

Do not Copy
Do not Copy

Special Design by mixing of color yarn, basically it is a simple plain knit fabric

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Session
Printed Fabric
Technical Face Technical Back

Do not Copy

Do not Copy

The easy way to distinguish a printed fabric from knitted jacquard fabric is, the printed
fabric only shows the design on one size.
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Session
Ornamentation of Rib Structure

► Ornamentation of rib structure can be done by using

the methods mentioned for plain knit fabrics.

► In addition to these, the width of the cords or ribs

can be increased by arranging needle set outs.

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Ornamentation of Rib Structure

► E.g . : Swiss Rib, 2 x 2 rib

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Session
Ornamentation of Rib Structure
► E.g . : Derby Rib, 3 x 3, 6 x 3 rib fabric

Do not Copy
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Session
Derivatives of Rib Structure

► Though there are more number of derivatives, only

two derivatives which are most common..

■ Half Cardigan or Royal Rib

■ Full Cardigan or Polka Rib

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Session
Half Cardigan or Royal Rib
► In half cardigan on one course a 1x1 rib is produced
and on another course tuck loop and reverse loop is
produced.

► It is therefore an
Do not Copy
unbalance structure.

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Session
Full Cardigan or Polka Rib
► In polka rib, first course is knitted with face and tuck
loop and this second course with tuck and reverse loop.

► It is a therefore a balanced structure.

Do not Copy
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Session
Derivatives of Interlock
► One of the most important derivatives of interlock
structure is an eight lock structure.

► This structure is identical to interlock except that

two 2 x2 ribs are intermeshed instead of two 1 x 1 rib

intermeshed in the interlock structure.

► This is more stable and tighter fabric and at the

same time it has good amount of elasticity.
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Session
Weft Knitted Fabrics

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Session
Alpaca Stitch Fabric
► A purl fabric where the courses appear in vertical
arrangement.

► Appearance is similar to that of a 1 x 1 purl fabric

turned 90 degrees.

► May be made from any fiber, not necessarily alpaca.

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Session
Argyle
► Diamond shaped design
of different colors, where
diamond areas formed with
their own complete
stitches rather than by miss Do not Copy

stitch or other technique.

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Session
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Session
Bird’s Eye
► A salt and pepper color effect on the back of a
double knit fabric.

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Session
Bourrelet
► A type of double knit fabric having a ripple stitch or
corded effect on the fabric surface.

Designing of Weft Knit

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Session
Cable Stitch Fabric
► Fabric having the appearance of a plaited rope or
cable running in the wales direction of a fabric.

► Basic fabric structure is rib knit.

► Widely used in sweaters.

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Session
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Session
Cardigan Fabric
► A modified form of rib knit produced of a plaited
rope or cable running in the wales direction of a fabric.

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Session
Cardigan Fabric
►Cardigan stitches are either full or half, and appear
the same on the both sides.
ERROR: stackunderflow
OFFENDING COMMAND: ~
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29

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Session
Yarns for Knitting

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Session
Introduction
► The yarn characteristics have a major influence on
the performance of knitting as well as on the
appearance of finished fabric.
► Improvements in the
performance of knitting industry
demand improvements in the
knitting machines as well as
optimisation of yarn properties.

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Session
Introduction
►Various hosiery yarns are
manufactured using the range
of fibres available to suit
different end uses.

► In India, majority of the

knitted products are made from

cotton yarn.
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Session
Yarn Count & Machine Gauge

► The yarn count to be used on the circular knitting

machine depends mainly upon pitch or machine gauge.

► For any given machine gauge it can lie within a larger

range, because on the same machine different yarn

count can be used, depending on the knitted structure,
the desired fabric appearance and the fabric
properties.
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Session
Yarn Count & Machine Gauge
Machine Gauge Relanit Single Fleecy Fine Rib Interlock Jacquard
Needles/inch Ne Jersey Ne Ne Ne Ne
08 ** 7/2-14/2 ** 19.0/2-12 ** **
10 ** 9.5/2-8.5 ** 12.0-18.0 16.5/2-12 14/2-18/2
12 ** 10.5/2-10 2.5-9.5 14.0-20.0 21.5/2-14 20/2-23/2
14 ** 14.0/2-12 3.5-12.0 16.5-23.5 12.0-16.5 13.0-18.0
16 ** 12.0-19.0 6.0-16.5 23.5-35.5 16.5-21.5 16.5-21.5
18 10.5-23.5 14.0-23.5 7.0-18.0 29.5-47.5 21.5-23.5 18.0-23.5
20 14.0-26.0 18.0-26.0 8.5-20.0 41.5-53.0 23.5-29.5 21.5-26.0
22 16.5-29.5 21.5-29.5 10.5-23.5 47.5-59.0 28.5-35.5 23.5-28.5
24 19.0-35.5 23.5-35.5 14.0-26.0 53.0-71.0 33.0-41.5 26.0-33.0
26 21.5-41.5 26.0-41.5 16.5-29.5 ** 35.5-47.5 **
28 23.5-47.5 29.5-47.5 19.0-35.5 ** 41.5-53.0 **
30 29.5-59.0 35.5-59.0 21.5-41.5 ** 47.5-59.0 **
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Session
Yarn Count & Machine Gauge

Fiber Machine Gauge (Needles /Inch)

10 12 14 15 16 18 20 22-
22-24 28-
28-32 40-
40-42

Wool 640 500 420 300 250 250 200 Yarn count in dTex

Cotton 300 280 235 220 194 150 125 63

Polyester 280 235 190 140 140 140 122 95 50

Polyamide 400 350 250 150 150 125 125 100 76 33

Acrylic 300 235 200 200 200 167 150 Yarn count in dTex

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Session
Knitting Demands of Yarn
► The following are the important yarn quality

requirements (given in the order of importance) for

efficient running on knitting:

■ High work of rupture value

■ Substantial elongation at break

■ Low flexural, torsional and initial stretch resistance

■ Good resiliency
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Session
Knitting Demands of Yarn

■ Reasonable tenacity and loop strength

■ Resistance to fatigue due to cyclic stress and strain

■ Regularity of physical characteristics such as twist,

evenness, moisture content

■ Smooth and low frictional yarn properties.

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Session
Knitting Yarn
► The practice in the industry in assessment of hosiery
yarn quality is on the lines with the established norms
for weaving or for general

understanding of yarn grade

rather than anything specific to

knitting, except waxing.

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Session
Knitting Yarn
►The purchase of yarn is based on the general
parameters like count, U%, imperfections, strength and
elongation and TPM.

► Most of the knitters in SMEs

test only the count for setting

the GSM of the fabric.

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Session
Twist
► Twist in hosiery yarn should
be less.
► Still in few cases, yarn of higher
twist being preferred on the ground
that it performs well in knitting in
terms of lesser yarn breakages.

► That is true but the benefit is at

the cost of fabric quality.
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Session
Twist
► Unlike woven fabrics, knit
structures are formed by bending
the yarn into a loop and then
interlacing them to create a fabric.

► The curvature of loop would be

smooth and well defined if the
bulkiness of the yarn is higher.

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Session
Twist
► The bulkiness eliminates sharp bending and improves

resiliency of the structure, these fabrics are expected to

stretch easily and recover during use.

► The very purpose of using low

twist yarn is to achieve this smooth

curvature to loops and high resiliency

to fabric.
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Session
Uniformity
► For obtaining smooth curvature to loop and its
uniformity the yarn should be uniform in thickness and
imperfections should

be minimum.

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Session
Uniformity
► The thin place in yarn receives more twist resulting
in compact structure i.e. high torsional rigidity or sharp
bends in loop while thick place receives less twist and
forms a large curvature at loop.

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Session
Uniformity
► This variation in bending, twisting and surface
friction can vary tension in yarn during loop formation.
This would result in shift of loop forming point in
knitting zone leading to variation in loop dimension.

►The shape of loop, obviously,

has changed.

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Session
Coefficient of Friction
► Waxing to cotton hosiery yarns is common.

► A great improvement in quality of wax and there by

the reduction in coefficient of yarn friction.

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Session
Flexural Rigidity
► Flexural rigidity is the resistance of the yarn to
bending.

► Formation of loop involves torsional, flexural and

tensile deformations.

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Session
Tenacity & Breaking Extension

► Tenacity is specific stress at rupture and expressed

as cN/Tex.

► Breaking Extension is

the extension registered

at the highest strength

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Session
Tenacity
► The strength of the yarn must be sufficient to resist
tensile strain occurring while knitting on the machine.

► It must also contribute to

the required stability of the

fabric.

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Session
Tenacity
► In staple fiber yarns the strength is mainly
proportional to the level of twist inserted.

► Higher twist lead to harder or firmer yarns.

► This is not desired in knitwear, which one requires a

soft twisted yarn.

► A constant compromise is

therefore always required.

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Session
Breaking Extension
► Extension in yarn is necessary, so that it can resist
bending strains or neutralise them by getting extended
in such a way that it does not break.

► The extension of staple yarn is inversely proportional

to their twist level.

► Compared to filament yarns, the

extension of staple fiber yarns

considerably lower. vasantkothari@[Link] 26

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Session
Yarn Hairiness
► Excessive yarn hairiness causes excessive yarn
friction between yarn and metal, which hinders proper
loop formation and particularly with cotton yarn,
generates lots of fly.

► It spoils the fabric appearance

and causes excessive pilling

► It also gives the improper dyeing.

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Session
Elasticity
► Elasticity is often confused with extension or
extensibility of a yarn or a fabric.

► In order to prevent, or keep a permanent yarn

deformation within acceptable tolerance while

producing a circular knit fabric, the yarn should not be
strained beyond its elastic limits.

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Session
Summary
► In contrast to weaving

the yarn strength of

knitting yarn is
secondary, as the loading
placed on the yarn
during knitting is lower

than weaving.

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Session
►However, the yarn must exhibits enough elongation
and elasticity.

► There must be no weak

places or thick places that

can result in stop holes

in knitted material, or even

break needles.
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Session
Summary
► Particularly important is the low friction value
because of which yarn will pass easily through the
various guide elements

of the machine.

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Session
Summary
►The moisture content of the yarn should be evenly
distributed.

► In most cases, a constant

and high hairiness value

with a low twist is required

in order to achieve a soft

handle fabric handle.

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Session
Knitting Demands of Yarn

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Session
Warp Knitting Yarns
► The two main types of yarn are supplied to the Warp
Kitting machine in warp sheet form are

■ Continuous filament yarn

■ Staple fiber yarns

● Includes the fancy yarns or

● Yarn made from blends of fibers.

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Session
Filament Yarns
► Continuous filaments yarns are very popular in Warp
knitting for various reasons..

■ Filament yarns being regular and uniform, can

easily pass through

the knitting elements

which are precision set

closely.

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Session
Filament Yarns
■ As the speed of knitting is high, the rate of ling
formation will also be high because of yarn to metal
friction. Lint is the big problem in knitting as it will
obstruct the free running of the yarn through
knitting elements. Filament yarns do not form lints
which are common in staple fiber yarns.

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Session
Filament Yarns
■ Mechanical properties such as tenacity, elasticity,
flexural rigidity, bending modulus are more uniform
in continuous filament yarn than staple fiber yarns.

■ Uniform continuity, knot free yarn and pliability of

continuous filament yarn affords easy lapping and
loop formation actions.

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Session
Filament Yarns
► The filament yarn properties are depends on

■ Yarn denier

■ Number of filament & denier of individual filament

■ twist

■ surface characteristics like friction &

■ Mechanical properties like tenacity, elongation at

break, work of rupture, bending, flexural & torsional

© 2009
rigidity vasantkothari@[Link] 38
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Session
Filament Yarns
► Flexural and torsional rigidity of yarns is proportional
to the fourth power of the yarn diameter and the yarn
diameter is depends on the yarn denier.

► Thus the mechanical properties

of the filament yarns is depends on

the denier.

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Session
Filament Yarns
► The yarn diameter is also depends on the specific
gravity and the shape factor of the material which
change with the type of synthetic

material used.

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Session
Filament Yarns
► The number of filaments and the denier of each
filament also affects the warp knitting performance.

► The diameter of 30 denier monofilament is much

larger than that of the multifilament yarn having 10

filaments each of three denier.

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Session
Filament Yarns
► At the same time, a multifilament strand up to
certain deniers, is much more flexible and pliable than
the monofilament of equivalent denier.

► In order to reduce the rigidities to low value, the

yarn strand is assembled from a large number of low
denier filament.

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Session
Filament Yarns
► Nylon yarns consisting of 7 and 8 filaments are
suitable for outerwear fabrics, 10 to 13 filaments being
suitable for underwear fabrics while 34 filaments yarns
give suppleness to the fabric along with good moisture
absorbing capacity with excellent opacity and subdued
lusture.

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Session
Filament Yarns
► Twist is an important variable in yarn which affects
the quality and working of knitting.

► In warp knitting, the twist of continuous filament

yarns ranges between 0 – 7 tpi.

► For special crepe yarns it may be reach a high value

of 50 – 60.

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Session
Filament Yarns
► Twist also effects the tenacity and the elastic
properties of yarn.

► Tenacity increases with increase in twist.

► The finer the yarn, the greater is the twist required

to bring tenacity to its peak level.

► Higher the twist, greater the elongation for a given

load.
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Session
Filament Yarns
► Twist also affects the denier and diameter of
filament due to the shrinkage taking place as the angle
of helix increases.

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Session
Filament Yarns
► Some of the other effects of twists are ..

■ Twist reduces the frictional drag of yarn, the

greater the twist the lower the coefficient of friction
and hence less drag on yarn.
■ twist affects the diameter of yarn which decreases
to a level when compact and cylindrical yarn is
obtained.

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Session
Filament Yarns
■ twist reduces absorption and dye uptake of yarn
and fabric.

■ twist changes the air permeability of the fabric.

■ it has dulling effect on yarn the greater the twist,

greater is the diffusing effect and less lusture.

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Session
Filament Yarns
► It is better to have twistless filament in knitting for
certain end properties, like feel, hand and drape.

► It is also common practice to use some kind of

lubricant like wax or oil during warp preparation.

► Excessive amount of Waxing or oiling may increases

the coefficient of friction.

► Normally 0.5 – 2% waxing is recommended.

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Session
Filament Yarns
► Lubrication is mainly done to

■ Achieve better cohesion among the strand of

filaments.

■ Reduce the drag or friction

of the yarn

■ Enhance the yarn pliability

■ Dissipate static charges.

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Session
Staple Fiber Yarns
► Staple yarns are used to a very limited extent in
tricot knitting.

► However, it is used to a greater extent in raschel

trade.

► Only good cottons with proper twist and gassed and

lubricated can be used for tricot knitting.

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Session
Important Yarn Properties For
Warp Knitting
► Work of rupture

■ Should be high

► Elongation

■ Should be good

► Tenacity

■ Minimum value should be determined by

requirements of the wrapping process.
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Session
Important Yarn Properties For
Warp Knitting

► Bending and Flexural Rigidity

■ Should be low

► Torsional Rigidity

■ Should be low

►Resiliency

■ Greater the resiliency the more resistance to

rupture.
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Session
Knitted Fabric Parameters

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Session
Introduction
► At present knit fabric quality is decided by few
physical parameters namely

■ GSM,

■ loop dimensions (loop length, wales and courses

per unit length),

■ fabric width,

■ dimensional stability and

■ defects in the fabrics.

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Session
Introduction
► However, aesthetic value of
the fabric or the appeal to the
customer regarding the fabric,
which ultimately accounts for
satisfying the customer, is not
measured by these
parameters.

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Session
Introduction
► At the same time the comfort properties of the
fabric like smoothness and fluidity of loops that
influences shear and low stress

mechanical properties are also

not sufficiently covered by above

listed parameters.

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Session
Introduction
► Further, more than just
the stability of the
fabric/garment, for which
knits are known to be poor,
the localized variation in
dimension would hamper
the appearance and useful
life of it.
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Session
Parameters Of Fabric Quality

► The quality of fabrics at micro level could be, loop-

to-loop variation in their dimension including loop
shape (not as a shape factor but as geometrical shape
of the loop) and localised variation in loop density
(rather than GSM).

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Session
Parameters Of Fabric Quality

► The important loop dimensions are loop length, loop

width (wale spacing) and loop height (course spacing).

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Session
Parameters Of Fabric Quality

► The uniformity in dimension of loops provides

attractive appearance to fabric, as it eliminates blurring
effect of irregular dimensions.

► The fabric would be

more elegant, lustrous,

smoother, softer and

stable.
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Session
Parameters Of Fabric Quality

► The uniformity in geometrical shape of the loop is

another parameter, which affects the elegancy of the
fabric and its fluidity.

► In most of the structures the loop is distorted during

relaxation, chemical processing or during usage
resulting in dullness, rough or ridged effect in the
fabric.
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Session
Parameters Of Fabric Quality
► A standard loop shape is shown in Figure 1 for single
jersey structure.

► The geometrical shape of

a standard loop should have

same curvature for crown &

sinker loop (normally sinker

loops are larger than crown).

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Session
Parameters Of Fabric Quality
► Both the arms of loop should be in the same plane.
►The bending of crown and
sinker loop should be to an
equal depth and without
twisting or turning.
► The shape factor, ratio of
width to height of the loop
should be about 1.3.
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Session
Parameters Of Fabric Quality

►The contact places of yarn in

loop interlacement should be
at the junction of loop arm and
the crown/sinker loop, ie, at
points A, B, C and D in Figure 1.

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Session
Parameters Of Fabric Quality

►The variation in this loop shape and the dimension

should be minimum.

► Such structures can be more resilient because the

mobility of loops or redistribution of yarn in loops

during any deformation would be easier.

► This would improve the dimensional stability of the

fabric.
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Session
Machine Parameters
► Machine parameters and technology of the machine
influence the fabric quality as well as the demand on
yarn quality.

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Session
Machine Parameters
►Below are the main machine parameters which can
affect the fabric quality
■ needle type, ■ take down system,

■ gauge, ■ cloth rolling or

■ cam type, spreading,

■ yarn feeding system, ■ monitoring and

■ number of feeders, ■control systems

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Session
Machine Parameters
►However, selection of machine or its parameters for
knitting a particular yarn for manufacturing given GSM
is crucial.

► The ideal count range for a given gauge has to be

followed.

► The coarser gauge machine can knit with much ease

compared to finer one for a given yarn.
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Session
Process Parameters
► The below process parameters plays a vital role in

deciding the quality of the fabric.

► cam setting, ► delay time (in double

► speed, jersey),

► yarn tension, ► stitch length,

► sinker setting (in single► take down rate,

jersey), ► condition of machine, etc

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Session
Process Parameters
► The knit fabric from similar yarn knit on similar
machine (make and condition) with similar process
parameters produce fabrics of different quality and
some times beyond acceptable limits.

► This speaks about influence of variation in yarn and

process parameters other than those considered today

in the industry.
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Session
Process Parameters
► They can create difference in strain at different loops
as also variation in their relaxation.

► This leads to loop-to-loop variation in dimension,

geometrical shape as well as the localised variation in

loop density.

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Session
Yarn Quality
► The purchase of yarn for knitting is based on the
general parameters like

■ count,

■ U%,

■ imperfections,

■ strength & elongation and

■TPM.
vasantkothari@[Link] 24
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Session
Yarn Quality
► Most of the knitters in
SMEs test only the count for
setting the GSM of the
fabric.

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29

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Session
Defects in Knitted Fabrics

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Session
Skew or Bias
► Skewing: Skewing effect is seen as a line or design
running at a slight angle across the cloth

► Skewing: Skewing effect is seen as a line or design

running at a slight angle across the cloth

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Session
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Session
Bowing or Twisting
► A line or a design may curve across the fabric. This
bowing is the distortion caused by faulty take-up
mechanism on the knitting machine.

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Session
Bowing

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Session
Knots

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Session
Thick and Thin Yarn

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Session
Uneven Yarn Structure

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Session
Course Yarn

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Session
Slub

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Session
Slub

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Session
Needle Lines
► Needle lines or vertical lines
is due to a wale that is either
tighter or looser than the
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adjacent ones.

► This is caused by needle

movement due to a tight fit in

its slot or a defective sinker.
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Session
Needle Run
► Broken needles
►Bent needles - stem,

►Dirty needles

►Dial and cylinder needle misalignment needles rub

►Improper setting of yarn guides

►Machine vibration

►Wrong needle

►Mixed needle lots

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Session
Fabric Run
► Dropped Stitch: This is an unknitted stitch caused
either by the yarn carrier not having been set properly
or the stitch having been knitted too loosely.

► Run or ladder: A run or

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ladder indicates a row of

dropped stitches in the wale

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Session
Ladder
Wales Collapse in straight line

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Session
Holes
► A large hole or a press off is the result of a broken yarn
at a specific needle feed so that knitting cannot occur
■ Yarn or mechanical in nature
■ High friction - between yam and guides
■ Insufficient wax or oil
■ Poor quality (strength, elongation)
■ Too much yam tension
■ Knots
■ Improper yam size for gauge
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Session
Holes
■ Snarling of yarn (twist lively)
■ Slubs, trash

■ Lint (low twist, extreme hairiness, poor cleanliness)

■ Low humidity
■ Static

■ Improper setting of yam guides

■ Feeder problems (tight, rough places)

■ Faulty height adjustment of sinkers

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Session
Hole

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Session
Hole

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Session
Needle hole

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Session
Holes
by defective machine elements

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Session
Cloth Fall Out
► It can occur after a drop stitch especially when an
empty needle with closed latch runes into the yarn
feeder and removes the yarn out of the hooks of the
following needles.

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Session
Cloth Fall Out

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Session
Bunching Up
► This is largely influenced by the fabric take up and
whether it functions properly.

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Session
Shade Bar/ Barre
► A barre effect has the appearance of a stripe with
shaded edges. It is horizontal in weft knits and vertical
in warp knits.

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Session
Barre
► Yarn related causes of barré:
■ Yarn count variations.
■ Yarn twist variation.
■ Wrong yarn – size, color, blend level, twist
direction.
■ Mixed yarn lots.
■ Mixed shipment dates of same dye lot.
■ Uneven waxing or oiling of yarn
■ Improper conditioning.
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Session
Barre
►Knitting Machine related causes of barré include:

■ Different stitch settings (stitch lengths).

■ Improper tension at a feed.

■ Faulty cylinder or dial cam settings.

■ Malfunctioning of storage or tape feeders.

■ Improper threading of yarn.

■ Variations at take-down or spreader system.

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Session
Barre
■ Machine vibration.

■ Dirt, lint, and/or yarn fragments in the camming

system, tricks, needles, or sinkers.

■ Variation in oil content.

■ Worn needles, which generally produce length

direction streaks.

■ Uneven cylinder height needles (wavy barré).

■ Worn cylinder and/or dial.

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Session
Barre
► Recommendations to minimize barré include:

■ Knit an entire dye lot from the same knitting

machine.

■ Use only yarn from the same spinning lot.

■ Use only from the same shipment date if possible.

■ Determine through laboratory analysis and

experience if the preparation procedures are sufficient
or can they be modified to eliminate the problem.
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Session
Fly Yarn Contamination

Do Not Copy

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Session
Fabric Weight out of Tolerance

Do Not Copy

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Session
Fabric Elongation not as
Approved

Do Not Copy

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Session
Dye Mark

Do Not Copy

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Session
Stain
Excessive oil, dirt

Do Not Copy

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Session
Missing Plush Loop
Mulfunctioning of loop

Do Not Copy

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Session
Pin Marks
Poorly adjusted stenter pin

Do Not Copy

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Session
Spirality
► This is a very common problem in single jersey knits
and it may exist in grey, washed or finished state and
has an obvious influence on both the aesthetic and
functional performance of knitwear.

► However, it does not appear more in interlock and

rib knits because the wale on the face is counter

balanced by a wale on the back.
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Session
Spirality
Over twisted yarn

Do Not Copy

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Session
Spirality
► Spirality is a regular deformation (skewing) of the
knit structure due to the yarn twisting within the
structure, so that the vertical lines of stitches (the
wales) are no longer at

right angles to the

horizontal lines of
Do Not Copy
stitches (the courses).

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Session
Spirality
► Spirality in knitwear is caused by using an
“unbalanced” yarn

► When spirality occurs in a fabric there is little or

nothing which can be done in finishing to alleviate it

and usually the only option is to use replacement yarn
having balanced twist.

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Session
Spirality
►However, sometimes spirality can be prevented by
steam setting an unbalanced yarn when knitted in a
single bed structure, and also some yarns which cause
spirality can usually be knitted in a rib structure, since
skewing tendency on the front and back beds should
cancel out.

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Session
Spirality
► Weft knitted fabrics tend to undergo certain
dimensional change that causes distortion in which
there is a

►tendency of the knitted loops to bend over, causing

the wales to be at diagonal instead of perpendicular to

►the courses.

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Session
Spirality
►Some of the practical problems arising out of the
loop spirality in knitted garments are:

■ displacement or shifting of seams,

■ mismatched

■ patterns and sewing difficulties.

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Session
Spirality
►These problems are often corrected by finishing steps
such assetting/treatment with resins, heat and steam,
so that wale lines are perpendicular to the course lines.

► Such setting is often not stable, and after repeated

washing cycles, skewing of the wales normally re-
occurs.

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Session
Spirality

Do Not Copy

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Session
Spirality
► Calculation:

■ Percent change in spirality can Do Not Copy

be represented as follows:

X = 100 x (AA’/AB)

■ Where, X = % change in spirality

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Session
Facing--up
Facing
► Facing –up can be defined as the generation of

unwanted surface fibres leading to a change in the

appearance of the garment.

► Fabrics and knit made from Woollenspun yarns

generally are finished to create a fuzzy or hairy surface

and during wear/abrasion the reverse effect is
sometimes an issue.

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Session
Facing--up
Facing
►Facing up can occur all over a garment or in localised
areas.

► It is caused by the gradual withdrawal of fibres from

the surface layer of yarns

(migration) and can in many

cases lead to Pilling. Do Not Copy

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Session
Facing--up
Facing
► The migration of surface fibres from the body of the
fabric to the surface is due to frictional forces applied
to the fibres on contact with other surfaces which
might also include the same fabric.

► Consequently facing up tends to occur when surface

abrasion forces are high such as during tumble drying.

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Session
Facing--up
Facing
► The tendency to facing up depends on several
factors, very similar to those associated with pilling,
and include:
■ Fibre length
● Short or broken fibres are less well anchored in
the yarn structure and migrate more easily
■ Fibre diameter
● Finer fibres tend to be shorter and thus more
likely to migrate
■ Yarn twist
● Low or irregular twist permits fibre migration
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Session
Facing--up
Facing
■ Cover factor
● Higher densities increase inter-fibre friction
and slow down fibre migration
■ Fabric Softener
● Too much softener reduces inter -fibre friction
and permits fibre migration
► To avoid the potential for facing up the above factors
should be considered in the design of the
fabric/garment.
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Session
Cockling and Loop Distortion
► Cockling has been defined as “an irregular surface
effect caused by loop distortion”.

► In general it appears as localised groups of distorted

knitted loops which have twisted out of the

symmetrical configuration.

► The fault is usually found in the plain knit structure,

which is relatively unstable, and especially in yarns

spun from animal fibres such as wool or mohair.
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Session
Cockling and Loop Distortion

► Wool knitwear made from worsted yarns is more

prone to cockling/loop distortion because, unlike
woollen knitwear, no milling is carried out during
finishing which helps to conceal faults under a surface
fuzz.

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Session
Cockling and Loop Distortion
► There are three types of cockling:-

►a) Rib/plain interface cockling caused by a difference

in the relaxed widths of the two structures

Do Not Copy
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Session
Cockling and Loop Distortion
► Panel-edge cockling caused by a difference in the
relaxed dimensions of neighboring structures.
► Panel edge loops are stretched in length when
fashioning takes place and
this tends to result in the
contraction of the adjacent
plain knit fabric, allowing Do Not Copy
cockling to take place.
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Session
Cockling and Loop Distortion

► Random all-over cockling. Almost always this can be

assigned to using unsuitable yarn.

► Yarns which cause random

all-over loop distortion also tend

to cause rib/plain and

panel edge cockling as well. Do Not Copy

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Session
Cockling and Loop Distortion

Factors affecting Cockling/Loop Distortion

►The main factors which have been linked to

cockling/loop distortion include:

■ Fibre Diameter

■ There is a direct relationship between an increase

in fibre diameter and increase in loop

distortion/cockling.
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Session
Cockling and Loop Distortion

■ Method of Dyeing

● Package dyeing increases loop

distortion/cockling because it creates a ‘setting
effect’ on the fibre and yarn, making it more
rigid and hence resistant to loop formation on
knitting.

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Session
Cockling and Loop Distortion

■ Yarn Count Regularity

● Although yarn count has little effect, yarn

count regularity does influence loop

distortion/cockling.

■ Yarn Twist Regularity

● Generally accepted that large variations in

twist can lead to loop distortion/cockling.

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Session
Cockling and Loop Distortion

■ Yarn Rigidity

● The more rigid the yarn the greater will be the

tendency for loop distortion/cockling.

● However, the flexural rigidity of a yarn is

usually dependent upon the diameter of the
fibres.

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Session
Cockling and Loop Distortion

■ Yarn Steaming

● Steaming causes setting and increased rigidity

particularly in the case of shrink-resist yarns.

■ Cover Factor

● The lower the cover factor, the less stable the

resultant fabric, and the greater possibility of

loop distortion/cockling.
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Session
Cockling and Loop Distortion
■ Fibre Crimp
● Inconclusive, but it is believed that the higher
the fibre crimp the less the tendency for loop
distortion/cockling to occur.
■ Top Chlorine/Hercosett Treatment
● Although some opinions have been somewhat
diverse, it is generally regarded that it has no
significant direct effect on the tendency for the
occurrence of cockling/loop distortion
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Session
Cockling and Loop Distortion
Avoiding cockling/loop distortion
► Where possible the above factors should be

considered and if feasible:

■ Use a wool with a finer mean fibre diameter
■ Improve the regularity of the yarn

■ Avoid package dyeing – top or piece dye instead

■ Avoid steam setting the yarn on package

■ Use a wool with more crimp

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