SENTENCES,
UTTERANCES,
AND
PROPOSITIONS
PRESENTED BY
Rahaf Tawfik Mesmari
Hajer Mohamed Morsi
3671
Aisha Saleh Alhammaly
Areej Ibrahim Ali Osman
3779
THIS UNIT INTRODUCES THREE BASIC
NOTIONS IN SEMANTICS:
1-Utterances
2-Sentences
3-Propositions
UTTERANCES
An utterance is any stretch of talk, by one person, before
and after which there is silence on the part of that person.
Example:
Read the following out loud
Virtue is its own reward
Now read it out loud again.
Two unique physical events took place. I.e. two utterances were made.
An utterance is the use by a particular speaker, on a particular
occasion, of a piece of language,
It can be a sequence of sentences, a phrase or a single word.
The characteristics of utterance
1- It is spoken.
2- It should be a piece of language.
3- There should be pauses between utterances.
4- It should be by a particular person, at specific time, location and event.
PRACTICE
Decide whether the following could represent utterances?
(1) ‘Hello’ Yes / No
(2) ‘Not much’ Yes / No
(3) ‘Utterances may consist of a single word, a single phrase or a single
sentence. They may also consist of a sequence of sentences. It is not unusual
to find utterances that consist of one or more grammatically incomplete
sentence-fragments. In short, there is no simple relation of correspondence
between utterances and sentences’ Yes / No
(4) ‘Pxgotmgt’ Yes / No
(5) ‘Schplotzenpflaaaaaaargh!’ Yes / No
PRACTICE
Decide whether the following could represent utterances?
(1) ‘Hello’ Yes / No
(2) ‘Not much’ Yes / No
(3) ‘Utterances may consist of a single word, a single phrase or a single
sentence. They may also consist of a sequence of sentences. It is not unusual
to find utterances that consist of one or more grammatically incomplete
sentence-fragments. In short, there is no simple relation of correspondence
between utterances and sentences’ Yes / No
(4) ‘Pxgotmgt’ Yes / No
(5) ‘Schplotzenpflaaaaaaargh!’ Yes / No
A sentence: a string of words put together by the
grammatical rules of a language.
A sentence is neither a physical event nor a physical
object. It is an ideal string of words behind various
realizations in utterances and inscriptions.
PRACTICE
Some examples will help to get the idea of a sentence across.
(1) Do all (authentic) performances of Macbeth begin by using the same
sentence? Yes / No
(2) Do all (authentic) performances of Macbeth begin with the
same utterance? Yes / No
(3) Does it make sense to talk of the time and place of a sentence? Yes / No
(4) Does it make sense to talk of the time and place of an utterance? Yes / No
(5) Can one talk of a loud sentence? Yes / No
(6) Can one talk of a slow utterance? Yes / No
PRACTICE
Some examples will help to get the idea of a sentence across.
(1) Do all (authentic) performances of Macbeth begin by using the same
sentence? Yes / No
(2) Do all (authentic) performances of Macbeth begin with the
same utterance? Yes / No
(3) Does it make sense to talk of the time and place of a sentence? Yes / No
(4) Does it make sense to talk of the time and place of an utterance? Yes / No
(5) Can one talk of a loud sentence? Yes / No
(6) Can one talk of a slow utterance? Yes / No
Note:
In order to make a clear distinction between utterances and sentences in the
written form, a convention will be adopted that anything written between
quotation marks represents an utterance, and anything italicized represents a
sentence.
Example:
The house has been struck by lightning represents a sentence
‘The house has been struck by lightning’ represents an utterance
PRACTICE
1. For each of the following label it as an utterance (U) or sentence (S)
(a) ‘The train now arriving at platform one is the 11.15 from King’s Cross’ U / S
(b) The pelican ignores the linguist U/S
2. Identify what is wrong with the following:
(a) John announced Mary’s here in his squeakiest voice
(b) ‘Mary thought how nice John was’
PRACTICE
1. For each of the following label it as an utterance (U) or sentence (S)
(a) ‘The train now arriving at platform one is the 11.15 from King’s Cross’ U / S
(b) The pelican ignores the linguist U/S
2. Identify what is wrong with the following:
(a)‘Mary’s here’ should be in quotation marks since it represents an utterance
(b)A sentence cannot be a part of an utterance. Hence, the whole
example should be italicized.
SENTENCES
A SENTENCE is neither a physical
event nor a physical object. It is,
conceived abstractly, a string of words
put together by the grammatical rules
of a language. A sentence can be
thought of as the IDEAL string of words
behind various realizations in
utterances and inscriptions.
TYPES OF SENTENCES:
Declarative: makes a statement and ends with a period.
ex: The sky is blue.
Interrogative: asks a question and ends with a question mark.
ex: Is the sky blue?
Imperative: is a command or a request.
ex: Close the door.
Exclamatory: expresses strong emotions and ends with exclamation mark.
ex: What a beautiful day!
We have defined a sentence as a string of words. A
given sentence always consists of the same words, and
in the same order.
Any change in the words, or in their order, makes a
different sentence.
EXAMPLE
Helen rolled up the carpet.
different sentences
Helen rolled the carpet up.
Sincerity may frighten the boy
the same sentence
Sincerity may frighten the boy
It would make sense to say that an utterance was in a particular accent.
However, it would not make strict sense to say that a sentence was in a particular
accent, because a sentence itself is only associated with phonetic characteristics
such as accent and voice quality through a speaker’s act of uttering it.
ACCENT AND VOICE QUALITY BELONG STRICTLY TO THE UTTERANCE, NOT TO
THE SENTENCE UTTERED.
PRACTICE
(1) Does it make sense to ask what language (e.g. English, French, Chinese) a
sentence belongs to? Yes / No
2) What languages do the following sentences belong to?
Le jour de gloire est arrivé
.........................................................................................................................
Alle Menschen sprechen eine Sprache
..........................................................................................................................
PRACTICE
(1) Does it make sense to ask what language (e.g. English, French, Chinese) a
sentence belongs to? Yes / No
2) What languages do the following sentences belong to?
Le jour de gloire est arrivé
French
Alle Menschen sprechen eine Sprache
German
Not all utterances are actually tokens of sentences, but sometimes
only of parts of sentences, e.g. phrases or single words
A SENTENCE is a grammatically complete string of words expressing
a complete thought.
This very traditional EXAMPLE
definition is unfortunately
vague, but it is hard to I would like a cup of coffee is a sentence.
arrive at a better one for
Coffee, please is not a sentence.
our purposes. It is
intended to exclude any In the kitchen is not a sentence.
string of words that does
not have a verb in it, as Please put it in the kitchen is a sentence.
well as other strings. The
idea is best shown by
examples.
PRACTICE
Which of the following utterances are tokens of whole sentences (S) and
which are not (NS)?
(1) ‘John’ S / NS
(2) ‘Who is there?’ S / NS
(3) ‘Mine’ S / NS
(4) ‘It’s mine’ S / NS
(5) ‘Where shall I . . .?’ S / NS
PRACTICE
Which of the following utterances are tokens of whole sentences (S) and
which are not (NS)?
(1) ‘John’ S / NS
(2) ‘Who is there?’ S / NS
(3) ‘Mine’ S / NS
(4) ‘It’s mine’ S / NS
(5) ‘Where shall I . . .?’ S / NS
Utterances of non-sentences, e.g. short phrases, or single
words, are used by people in communication all the time. People
do not converse wholly in (tokens of) wellformed sentences.
But the abstract idea of a sentence is the basis for
understanding even those expressions which are not sentences.
In the overwhelming majority of cases, the meanings of non-
sentences can best be analysed by considering them to be
abbreviations, or incomplete versions, of whole sentences.
In the next slide are some sample conversations. In each case the
second utterance is not a token of a sentence. Write out a full
sentence expressing the intended meaning more fully
PRACTICE
(1) Magnus: ‘When did Goethe die?’
Fred: ‘In 1832’ .....................................................................................
(2) Hostess: ‘Would you like tea or coffee?’
Guest: ‘Coffee, please’....................................................................
(3) A: ‘Who won the battle of Waterloo?’
B: ‘Wellington’..................................................................................
PRACTICE
(1) Magnus: ‘When did Goethe die?’
Fred: Goethe died in 1832
(2) Hostess: ‘Would you like tea or coffee?’
Guest: I would like coffee please
(3) A: ‘Who won the battle of Waterloo?’
B: Wellington won the battle of Waterloo
A PROPOSITION
is that part of the meaning
of the utterance of a
declarative sentence which
describes some state of The state of affairs typically
affairs. involves persons or things
referred to by expressions in
the sentence and the situation
or action they are involved in. In
uttering a declarative sentence
a speaker typically asserts a
proposition.
Rule
The notion of truth can be used to decide whether two sentences
express different propositions. Thus if there is any conceivable set
of circumstances in which one sentence is true, while the other is
false, we can be sure that they express different propositions.
sentence is true
different propositions.
sentence is false
PRACTICE
IN EACH CASE, SAY WHETHER THERE ARE ANY CIRCUMSTANCES OF WHICH
ONE MEMBER OF THE PAIR COULD BE TRUE AND THE OTHER FALSE
(1) Harry took out the garbage
Harry took the garbage out Yes / No
(2) John gave Mary a book
Mary was given a book by John Yes / No
(3) Isobel loves Tony
Tony loves Isobel Yes / No
(4) George danced with Ethel
George didn’t dance with Ethel Yes / No
(5) Dr Findlay killed Janet
Dr Findlay caused Janet to die Yes / No
PRACTICE THESE ARE ALWAYS EITHER BOTH
TRUE OR BOTH FALSE.
WE CANNOT IMAGINE ANY SITUATION IN
(1) Harry took out the garbage WHICH ONE IS TRUE AND THE OTHER
FALSE
Harry took the garbage out Yes / No
(2) John gave Mary a book
Mary was given a book by John Yes / No
[Link] COULD BE TRUE AND
(3) Isobel loves Tony THE OTHER FALSE.
Tony loves Isobel Yes / No
(4) George danced with Ethel
FOR EXAMPLE IN THE SITUATION WHERE
George didn’t dance with Ethel Yes / No DR FINDLAY HAD CAUSED JANET TO DIE,
BUT NOT INTENTIONALLY, SAY BY
(5) Dr Findlay killed Janet SENDING HER TO A PLACE WHERE,
UNKNOWN TO HIM, SHE WAS ATTACKED.
Dr Findlay caused Janet to die Yes / No SOMEONE ELSE COULD IN FACT BE
GUILTY OF KILLING HER.
PRACTICE
(5) Dr Findlay killed Janet
Dr Findlay caused Janet to die Yes / No
FOR EXAMPLE IN THE SITUATION WHERE DR
FINDLAY HAD CAUSED JANET TO DIE, BUT NOT
INTENTIONALLY, SAY BY SENDING HER TO A
PLACE WHERE, UNKNOWN TO HIM, SHE WAS
ATTACKED. SOMEONE ELSE COULD IN FACT BE
GUILTY OF KILLING HER.
True propositions correspond to facts, in the ordinary sense of
the word fact. False propositions do not correspond to facts.
Practice
In the present-day world,
(1) Is it a fact that there are lions in Africa? Yes / No
(2) Is the proposition that there are lions in Africa a true
proposition? Yes / No
(3) Is it a fact that the state of Arkansas is uninhabited by human
beings? Yes / No
(4) Is the proposition that the state of Arkansas is uninhabited by
human beings true? Yes / No
True propositions correspond to facts, in the ordinary sense of
the word fact. False propositions do not correspond to facts.
Practice
In the present-day world,
(1) Is it a fact that there are lions in Africa? Yes / No
(2) Is the proposition that there are lions in Africa a true
proposition? Yes / No
(3) Is it a fact that the state of Arkansas is uninhabited by human
beings? Yes / No
(4) Is the proposition that the state of Arkansas is uninhabited by
human beings true? Yes / No
PROPOSITION IN THE MIND
One can entertain propositions in the mind regardless of
whether they are true or false, e.g. by thinking them, or
believing them. But only true propositions can be known.
PRACTICE
(1) If John wonders whether Alice is deceiving him, would it seem
reasonable to say that he has the proposition that Alice is deceiving him
in his mind, and is not sure whether it is a true or a false proposition?
Yes / No
(2) If I say to you, ‘If Mary came to the party, Phyllis must have been
upset’, do I thereby put in your mind the proposition that Mary came to
the party, without necessarily indicating whether it is true or not?
Yes / No
(3) If I say to you, ‘Was your father in the Navy?’, would it seem
reasonable to say that I have the proposition that your father was in the
Navy in my mind, and wish to know whether this proposition is true or not?
Yes / No
PRACTICE
(1) If John wonders whether Alice is deceiving him, would it seem
reasonable to say that he has the proposition that Alice is deceiving him
in his mind, and is not sure whether it is a true or a false proposition?
Yes / No
(2) If I say to you, ‘If Mary came to the party, Phyllis must have been
upset’, do I thereby put in your mind the proposition that Mary came to
the party, without necessarily indicating whether it is true or not?
Yes / No
(3) If I say to you, ‘Was your father in the Navy?’, would it seem
reasonable to say that I have the proposition that your father was in the
Navy in my mind, and wish to know whether this proposition is true or not?
Yes / No
PRACTICE
(4) Is there something odd about the following sentence? If so,
what? Pamela considered the fact that her mother was alive and
realized that it could not possibly be true.
.........................................................................................................................
(5) Is there something similarly odd about the following sentence?
If so, what? Pamela considered the proposition that her mother
was alive and realized that it could not possibly be true.
.........................................................................................................................
PRACTICE
(4) Is there something odd about the following sentence? If so,
what? Pamela considered the fact that her mother was alive and
realized that it could not possibly be true.
Yes, there is a kind of contradiction here, in that the same thing is
said to be both ‘a fact’ and ‘not possibly true’.
(5) Is there something similarly odd about the following sentence?
If so, what? Pamela considered the proposition that her mother
was alive and realized that it could not possibly be true.
No, there is nothing odd about this sentence, because we stated
that propositions can be either true or false.
In our definition of ‘proposition’ we
explicitly mentioned declarative
sentences, but propositions are
clearly involved in the meanings of Normally, when a speaker utters a
other types of sentences, such as simple declarative sentence, he
commits himself to the truth of the
interrogatives, which are used to corresponding proposition: i.e. he
ask questions, and imperatives, asserts the proposition. By uttering a
which are used to convey orders. simple interrogative or imperative, a
speaker can mention a particular
proposition, without asserting its truth.
EXAMPLE
‘John can go’ a speaker asserts the proposition that John can go.
‘Can John go?’ he mentions the same proposition but merely
questions its truth.
PRACTICE
(1) In the following utterances, is any proposition asserted by the
speaker?
(a) ‘Have you seen my toothbrush?’ Yes / No
(b) ‘Get out of here this minute!’ Yes / No
(c) ‘I’m afraid that I’ll have to ask you to leave’ Yes / No
PRACTICE
(1) In the following utterances, is any proposition asserted by the
speaker?
(a) ‘Have you seen my toothbrush?’ Yes / No
(b) ‘Get out of here this minute!’ Yes / No
(c) ‘I’m afraid that I’ll have to ask you to leave’ Yes / No
PRACTICE
(2) Would you say that the members of the following sentence
pairs have the same propositional content?
(a) Go away, will you?
You will go away Yes / No
(b) Pigs might fly
I’m a Dutchman Yes / No
(c) I am an idiot
Am I an idiot? Yes / No
PRACTICE
(2) Would you say that the members of the following sentence
pairs have the same propositional content?
(a) Go away, will you?
You will go away Yes / No
(b) Pigs might fly
I’m a Dutchman Yes / No
(c) I am an idiot
Am I an idiot? Yes / No
Propositions, unlike sentences, cannot be EXAMPLE
said to belong to any particular language.
Sentences in different languages can English I am cold
correspond to the same proposition, if the French J’ai froid CORRESPOND TO THE
two sentences are perfect translations of
each other.
German Mir ist kalt SAME PROPOSITION.
whether perfect translation
between languages is ever
possible. In point of fact, many
linguists disagree about this and it
is likely that absolutely perfect
translation of the same proposition
from one language to another is
impossible.
PRACTICE
(1) Fill in the chart below with ‘ + ’or ‘ -- ’ as appropriate.
(2) Can the same proposition be expressed by different sentences? Yes / No
(3) Can the same sentence be realized by different utterances (i.e. have different utterances as
tokens)? Yes / No
PRACTICE
(1) Fill in the chart below with ‘ + ’or ‘ -- ’ as appropriate.
(2) Can the same proposition be expressed by different sentences? Yes / No
(3) Can the same sentence be realized by different utterances (i.e. have different utterances as
tokens)? Yes / No
It is useful to envisage the kind of family tree relationship
between these notions shown in the diagram.
For example, a single proposition
THANK YOU