Power Quality is the branch of Power System engineering.

It is an umbrella concept for a

multitude of individual types of power system disturbances. The issues that fall under this
umbrella are not necessarily new. What is new is that engineers are now attempting to deal with
these issues usiPower Quality is the branch of Power System engineering. It is an umbrella
concept for a multitude of individual types of power system disturbances. The issues that fall
under this umbrella are not necessarily new. What is new is that engineers are now attempting
to deal with these issues using a system approach rather than handling them as individual
problems.

There are three major reasons for the increased concern:

Major reasons for increased concern about power quality

Reason 1-

We know that newer generation load equipment with microprocessor-based controls and
power electronics devices is more sensitive to power quality variations than was
equipment used in the past. And also electronically controlled equipment or energy
efficient equipment are very much sensitive to the deviations in the supply voltage and
frequency.

Our power system is designed for ac motors and incandescent lamps etc. but nowadays power
systems supply power to adjustable speed motor drives, microprocessor-controlled equipment,
computers, high efficiency lights.

In power systems, sensitive loads refer to electrical devices or equipment that are particularly
vulnerable to variations in voltage, frequency, or other disturbances in the electrical supply.
These loads are highly sensitive and can be easily affected by even minor fluctuations in the
power quality. The term "sensitive" implies that they require a stable and reliable power supply
to function correctly and avoid potential damage or malfunction.

Examples of sensitive loads include:

●​ Computers and IT equipment

●​ Medical equipment
●​ Communication systems
●​ Industrial control systems
●​ Precision manufacturing equipment
●​ Laboratory equipment

Reason 2

The overall power system efficiency gets reduced because lack of power quality which
results in use of shunt capacitance for power factor correction to reduce loss and use of
high efficiency adjustable speed drives hence which in increased harmonic level in the
system.

Reason 3

Our system is an interconnected system hence failure of any component has more
important consequences.

Explanation

The power system is a prime example of an interconnected system, and its operation relies on a
delicate balance of various components working together cohesively. In a power system,
electricity is generated at power plants and then transmitted over long distances through
transmission lines to reach distribution substations. From there, it is further distributed through
local power lines to homes, businesses, and industries.

The interconnected nature of the power system is primarily due to its integration into a grid,
which allows the generation, transmission, and distribution of electricity to be interconnected
and operate as a unified whole. This interconnectedness offers numerous advantages, such as
efficient power transfer over long distances, sharing of power resources, and improved overall
reliability.

However, the interconnectedness also means that the failure of any single component within the
power system can have significant consequences, affecting various aspects of daily life and
essential services. Here are some reasons why the failure of any component in the power
system is critical:

Cascading effect: The power grid operates in a delicate balance, where power generation
must match demand at all times. If a major component, such as a large power plant or a key
transmission line, fails, it can disrupt the balance, leading to the overloading of other
components and causing a cascading effect of failures across the system.

Widespread power outages: A component failure, especially in a crucial transmission line or a

major substation, can result in widespread power outages, affecting a large number of
customers over a wide geographical area.

To mitigate the impact of component failures, power system operators implement various
strategies, including redundancy, backup systems, and robust contingency plans. Advanced
monitoring and control systems help identify and isolate issues promptly, allowing for faster
restoration and minimizing the extent of the outage. Additionally, ongoing investments in grid
modernization and infrastructure upgrades enhance the resilience of the power system,
reducing the likelihood of failures and their consequences.

Power Quality Definitions

Power quality is defined in many sources, which give different meaning to different people and
sometimes conflicting statements of power quality due to a lot of confusion on the meaning of
the term power quality.

Therefore, its definition has not been universally agreed upon. It is used synonymously with
supply reliability, service quality, voltage quality, quality of supply, and quality of consumption.

The definitions given by IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) and IEC
(International Electrotechnical Commission) are provided here.

1.​ IEC 61000-4-30

The IEC definition of power quality, given in IEC 61000-4-30, states “Characteristics of the
electricity at a given point on an electrical system, evaluated against a set of reference
technical parameters.”

1.​ IEC 61000-1-1

Electromagnetic compatibility is a term related to power quality used in IEC 61000-1-1, which
states that “Electromagnetic compatibility is the ability of an equipment or system to
function satisfactorily in its electromagnetic environment without introducing intolerable
electromagnetic disturbances to anything in that environment.”

1.​ IEEE Dictionary

The definition of power quality given in the IEEE dictionary states that “Power quality is the
concept of powering and grounding sensitive equipment in a manner that is suitable to
the operation of that equipment.”

1.​ Consumer End

Power quality is ultimately a consumer-driven issue, and the end user’s point of reference takes
precedence. Therefore, the following definition of a power quality problem is used for this
course: Any power problem manifested in voltage, current, or frequency deviations that
results in failure or misoperation of customer equipment.

IMPORTANCE OF POWER QUALiTY

Before the widespread use of power electronic equipment, microprocessors for industrial
control, and automation in factories and offices, minor variations in power did not seriously
affect the operation of conventional equipment such as lights and induction motors. If the supply
voltage dipped because of a fault (i.e., a sag in voltage occurred), the lights just dimmed, and
the induction motor produced a lower output.

These days the effects of power interruptions are rather costly.

Reference 10 lists the following cases to illustrate the cost of short-duration power interruptions:
 1.​ One glass plant estimates that a five-cycle interruption, a momentary interruption less
than a tenth of a second, can cost about $200,000.
2.​ A major computer center reports that a 2-s interruption can cost some $600,000.
3.​ In some factories, following a voltage sag, the restarting of assembly lines may require
clearing the lines of damaged work, restarting of boilers, and reprogramming automatic
controls at a typical cost of $50,000 per incident.
4.​ One automaker estimated that total losses from momentary power interruptions at all its
plants run to about $10 million a year.

Power Quality Standards

If power quality problems increase to a level that this start affecting not only those who are
creating them, but also other consumers, then it becomes a matter of concern. In view of these
power pollution problems, a number of organizations such as IEC, IEEE, American National
Standards Institute (ANSI), British Standards (BS), European Norms (EN), Computer Business
Equipment Manufacturers Association (CBEMA), and Information Technology Industry Council
(ITIC) have developed different standards to specify the permissible limits of various
performance indices to maintain the level of power quality to an acceptable benchmark and to
provide guidelines to the customers, manufactures, and utilities on curbing the various events
causing the power quality problems.

IEC 61000 (International Electrotechnical Commission)

The IEC classifies electromagnetic phenomena into the groups shown in Table

The IEC 61000-2-5 standard defines a classification system for electromagnetic phenomena.
This classification system is used to categorize electromagnetic disturbances that can affect the
operation of electrical and electronic equipment.

The IEC 61000-2-5 standard defines three categories of electromagnetic phenomena:

Conducted disturbances: These disturbances are caused by the flow of current through
conductors. They can be caused by lightning strikes, switching transients, and other sources of
electrical noise.

Radiated disturbances: These disturbances are caused by the emission of electromagnetic

fields. They can be caused by radio transmitters, radar systems, and other sources of
electromagnetic radiation.

Combined disturbances: These disturbances are a combination of conducted and radiated

disturbances. They can be caused by lightning strikes, switching transients, and other sources
of electrical noise that also emit electromagnetic radiation.

It uses the frequency ranges and divides the problems into 3 categories: low frequency (< 9kHz
) , high frequency ( > 9kHz ) and electrostatic discharge phenomenon.
In power systems, electrostatic discharge (ESD) can have significant implications, particularly in
terms of equipment safety and reliability. The IEC 61000-2-5 standard addresses ESD within the
broader context of electromagnetic environments, which includes power systems. Here are
some specific considerations and guidelines related to ESD in power systems:

ESD in Power Systems

Electrostatic Discharge (ESD) in power systems is a less common but important

phenomenon, especially in the context of high-voltage equipment, gas-insulated switchgear
(GIS), and substations. ESD is the sudden flow of electricity between two electrically
charged objects caused by contact, an electrical short, or dielectric breakdown.

ANSI Standard C84

1.​ The American National Standards Institute sets guidelines for 120-V service in ANSI
Standard C84-1 (1999) Shown in Figure are the ranges labeled “A” and “B.”
2.​ Range A is the optimal voltage range, and is 5 percent of nominal voltage. For 120-V
service, range A is 114 V to 126 V.
3.​ Range “B” is acceptable but not optimal, and is in the range of 91.7 percent to 105.8
percent of nominal. This range is allowable for infrequent use. Note that voltage sags
and surges go beyond these limits.

IEEE Standard 519

1.​ IEEE Standard 519 [2.1] (denoted IEEE Std. 519-1992) is titled “IEEE Recommended
Practices and Requirements for Harmonic Control in Electrical Power Systems.”
2.​ The abstract of this standard notes that power conversion units are being used today in
industrial and commercial facilities, and there are challenges associated with harmonics
and reactive power control of such systems.
3.​ The standard covers limits to the various disturbances recommended to the power
distribution system.

IEEE 1159

The categories and characteristics of power system electromagnetic phenomena in tabular

form. (Definition, causes, magnitude and duration)

| | Categories | Typical spectral content | Typical duration | Typical voltage magnitude | | --- | --- |
--- | --- | --- | | 1.0 | Transients | | | | | 1.1 | Impulsive | | | | | 1.1.1 | Nanosecond | 5-ns rise | <50
ns | | | 1.1.2 | Microsecond | 1-ms rise | 50 ns–1 ms | | | 1.1.3 | Millisecond | 0.1-ms rise | >1 ms |
| | 1.2 | Oscillatory | | | | | 1.2.1 | Low frequency | <5 kHz | 0.3–50 ms | 0–4 pu | | 1.2.2 | Medium
frequency | 5–500 kHz | 20 ms | 0–8 pu | | 1.2.3 | High frequency | 0.5–5 MHz | 5 ms | 0–4 pu | |
2.0 | Short-duration variations | | | | | 2.1 | Instantaneous | | | | | 2.1.1 | Interruption | | 0.5–30
cycles | <0.1 pu | | 2.1.2 | Sag (dip) | | 0.5–30 cycles | 0.1–0.9 pu | | 2.1.3 | Swell | | 0.5–30
cycles | 1.1–1.8 pu | | 2.2 | Momentary | | | | | 2.2.1 | Interruption | | 30 cycles–3 s | <0.1 pu | |
2.2.2 | Sag (dip) | | 30 cycles–3 s | 0.1–0.9 pu | | 2.2.3 | Swell | | 30 cycles–3 s | 1.1–1.4 pu | | 2.3
| Temporary | | | | | 2.3.1 | Interruption | | 3 s–1 min | <0.1 pu | | 2.3.2 | Sag (dip) | | 3 s–1 min |
0.1–0.9 pu | | 2.3.3 | Swell | | 3 s–1 min | 1.1–1.2 pu | | 3.0 | Long-duration variations | | | | | 3.1
| Interruption, sustained | | >1 min | 0.0 pu | | 3.2 | Under voltages | | >1 min | 0.8–0.9 pu | | 3.3 |
Over voltages | | >1 min | 1.1–1.2 pu | | 4.0 | Voltage unbalance | | Steady state | 0.5–2% | | 5.0
| Waveform distortion | | | | | 5.1 | DC offset | | Steady state | 0–0.1% | | 5.2 | Harmonics |
0–100th harmonic | Steady state | 0–20% | | 5.3 | Inter harmonics | 0–6 kHz | Steady state |
0–2% | | 5.4 | Notching | | Steady state | | | 5.5 | Noise | Broadband | Steady state | 0–1% | | 6.0 |
Voltage fluctuations | <25 Hz | Intermittent | 0.1–7% | | 7.0 | Power frequency | | | 0.2–2 Pst | |
| variations | | <10 s | |

1.​ Instantaneous: 0.5–30 cycles

2.​ Momentary: 30 cycles–3 s
3.​ Temporary: 3 s–1 min

NOTE: s 5 second, ns 5 nanosecond, ms 5 microsecond, ms 5 millisecond, kHz 5 kilohertz,

MHz 5 megahertz, min 5 minute, pu 5 per unit.

Classification of Power Quality Events as per IEEE 1159

Transients

1.​ The term transients has long been used in the analysis of power system variations to
denote an event that is undesirable and momentary in nature.
2.​ The notion of a damped oscillatory transient due to an RLC network is probably what
most power engineers think of when they hear the word transient.
3.​ Broadly speaking, transients can be classified into two categories, impulsive and
oscillatory. These terms reflect the waveshape of a current or voltage transient. We will
describe these two categories in more detail

Impulsive transient

1.​ An impulsive transient is a sudden, non–power frequency change in the

steady-state condition of voltage, current, or both that is unidirectional in polarity
(primarily either positive or negative).
2.​ To explain impulsive transient electrical events, you can use the following analogy:
Imagine a calm river flowing steadily. Suddenly, a large boulder falls into the river,
creating a significant splash and waves. The splash and waves are the transient events
in this analogy, and they last for a brief moment before the river returns to its steady flow.
 3.​ Impulsive transients are normally characterized by their rise and decay times, which can
also be revealed by their spectral content.
4.​ For example, a 1.2 50-s 2000-volt (V) impulsive transient nominally rises from zero to its
peak value of 2000 V in 1.2 s and then decays to half its peak value in 50 s.
5.​ Causes of Impulsive transients: The most common cause of impulsive transients is
lightning. Figure 2.1 illustrates a typical current impulsive transient caused by lightning.
6.​ Because of the high frequencies involved, the shape of impulsive transients can be
changed quickly by circuit components and may have significantly different
characteristics when viewed from different parts of the power system.
7.​ They are generally not conducted far from the source of where they enter the power
system, although they may, in some cases, be conducted for quite some distance along
utility lines.
8.​ Impulsive transients can excite the natural frequency of power system circuits and
produce oscillatory transients.

In an electrical system, an impulsive transient can be caused by:

Protection against Impulsive transients

Impulsive transients can be harmful to electrical equipment, especially sensitive electronic

devices.

To protect against these events, surge protection devices, such as surge protectors or transient
voltage suppressors, are installed in electrical systems. These devices help to divert the excess
energy from the transient away from the equipment, preventing damage and ensuring the
smooth operation of the electrical system.

Oscillatory transients

An oscillatory transient is a sudden, non–power frequency change in the steady-state

condition of voltage, current, or both, that includes both positive and negative polarity
values.

They are classified as:

1.​ High frequency transient

2.​ Medium frequency transient
3.​ Low frequency transient

High frequency transient:

1.​ Oscillatory transients with a primary frequency component greater than 500 kHz
and a typical duration measured in microseconds (or several cycles of the
principal frequency) are considered high-frequency transients.
 2.​ These transients are often the result of a local system response to both positive and
negative polarity values.
3.​ An oscillatory transient consists of a voltage or current whose instantaneous value
changes polarity rapidly.
4.​ It is described by its spectral content (predominant frequency), duration, and magnitude.
5.​ The spectral content subclasses defined in Table 2.2 are high, medium, and low
frequency. The frequency ranges for these classifications are chosen to coincide with
common types of power system oscillatory transient phenomena.

Medium frequency component:

1.​ A transient with a primary frequency component between 5 and 500 kHz with
duration measured in the tens of microseconds (or several cycles of the principal
frequency) is termed a medium-frequency transient.
2.​ Back-to-back capacitor energization results in oscillatory transient currents in the tens of
kilohertz as illustrated in Cable switching results in oscillatory voltage transients in the
same frequency range.
3.​ Medium-frequency transients can also be the result of a system response to an
impulsive transient.

Low frequency transient:

1.​ A transient with a primary frequency component less than 5 kHz, and a duration
from 0.3 to 50 ms, is considered a low-frequency transient.
2.​ This category of phenomena is frequently encountered on utility sub-transmission and
distribution systems and is caused by many types of events.
3.​ The most frequent is capacitor bank energization, which typically results in an oscillatory
voltage transient with a primary frequency between 300 and 900 Hz. The peak
magnitude can approach 2.0 pu, but is typically 1.3 to 1.5 pu with a duration of between
0.5 and 3 cycles depending on the system damping.
4.​ Oscillatory transients with principal frequencies less than 300 Hz can also be found on
the distribution system. These are generally associated with ferroresonance and
transformer energization.
5.​ Transients involving series capacitors could also fall into this category. They occur when
the system responds by resonating with low-frequency components in the transformer
inrush current (second and third harmonic) or when unusual conditions result in
ferroresonance.

It is also possible to categorize transients (and other disturbances) according to their mode.

Basically, a transient in a three-phase system with a separate neutral conductor can be either
common mode or normal mode,

Common Mode : It appears between line and ground or neutral and ground,
Normal Mode: It appears between line and neutral.

Effects of Transients on power system

These transients can have significant effects on power systems, and their impact depends on
the magnitude, duration, and frequency of the impulsive events. Here are some of the main
effects of impulsive transients on power systems:

1.​ Voltage Spikes: Impulsive transients can cause rapid voltage spikes, which can exceed
the equipment's voltage rating and lead to insulation failures, arcing, and damage to
connected devices.
2.​ Electromagnetic Interference (EMI): Impulsive transients generate electromagnetic
fields that can induce interference on nearby communication systems and electronic
devices. This interference can disrupt normal operations and lead to data corruption or
even equipment malfunction.
3.​ Power Quality Issues: Impulsive transients can cause voltage fluctuations, flickering
lights, and voltage imbalances, resulting in power quality issues. These issues can affect
sensitive equipment, disrupt industrial processes, and lead to financial losses.
4.​ Overvoltage and Overcurrent Conditions: Impulsive transients, such as lightning
strikes or capacitor switching, can cause temporary overvoltage and overcurrent
conditions in the power system. These conditions can damage equipment and lead to
power interruptions.
5.​ Protective Device Operation: Impulsive transients can trigger protective devices, such
as surge protectors and circuit breakers, leading to frequent operations that might not
always be necessary. This can affect the overall stability and reliability of the power
system.
6.​ Insulation Stress: The high rates of change of voltage and current during impulsive
transients can put significant stress on the insulation of power system components.
Repeated stress can lead to insulation breakdown and potential short circuits.
7.​ Transient Stability: In multi-machine power systems, impulsive transients can cause
temporary instability, affecting the synchronization between generators and leading to
voltage collapse or cascading failures.
8.​ Equipment Damage: Impulsive transients can subject power system equipment, such
as transformers, motors, and electronic devices, to sudden and extreme stress.
This stress can lead to insulation breakdown, mechanical failures, and damage to
sensitive electronic components.

Mitigation

To mitigate the effects of impulsive transients on power systems, several protective measures
are employed:

1.​ Surge Arresters: These devices divert transient overvoltages to the ground, protecting
equipment from excessive voltage levels.
 2.​ Surge Suppressors: These devices limit the rate of voltage rise during transients,
reducing stress on equipment.
3.​ Shielding and Filtering: For sensitive electronic devices, shielding and filtering
techniques are used to reduce the impact of electromagnetic interference.
4.​ Grounding: Proper grounding practices help dissipate transient currents safely into the
ground, reducing their impact on equipment

Long-Duration Voltage Variations

Long-duration variations encompass root-mean-square (rms) deviations at power frequencies

for longer than 1 min.

ANSI C84.1 specifies the steady-state voltage tolerances expected on a power system. A
voltage variation is considered to be long duration when the ANSI limits are exceeded for
greater than 1 min.

Long-duration variations can be either overvoltages or under voltages. Overvoltages and under
voltages generally are not the result of system faults, but are caused by load variations on the
system and system switching operations. Such variations are typically displayed as plots of rms
voltage versus time.

Overvoltage

1.​ An overvoltage is an increase in the rms ac voltage greater than 110 percent at the
power frequency for a duration longer than 1 min.
2.​ Reasons for overvoltages:
1.​ Overvoltages are usually the result of load switching (e.g., switching off a large
load or energizing a capacitor bank).
2.​ The overvoltages result because either the system is too weak for the desired
voltage regulation or voltage controls are inadequate.
1.​ Weak grid / Power system means that the voltage at the connecting point
will be very sensitive to any variation of the load.
2.​ Strong grid / Power system means that the voltage will be not affected
and will stay unchanged. It is why it is called stiff.
3.​ Incorrect tap settings on transformers can also result in system overvoltages.

Undervoltage

1.​ An undervoltage is a decrease in the rms ac voltage to less than 90 percent at the
power frequency for a duration longer than 1 min.
2.​ Reasons for undervoltages:
1.​ Undervoltages are the result of switching events that are the opposite of the
events that cause overvoltages.
 2.​ A load switching on or a capacitor bank switching off can cause an undervoltage
until voltage regulation equipment on the system can bring the voltage back to
within tolerances.
3.​ Overloaded circuits can result in undervoltages also.

Sustained interruptions

1.​ When the supply voltage has been zero for a period of time in excess of 1 min, the
long-duration voltage variation is considered a sustained interruption.
2.​ Voltage interruptions longer than 1 min are often permanent and require human
intervention to repair the system for restoration.
3.​ The term sustained interruption refers to specific power system phenomena and, in
general, has no relation to the usage of the term outage. Utilities use outage or
interruption to describe phenomena of similar nature for reliability reporting purposes.
However, this causes confusion for end users who think of an outage as any interruption
of power that shuts down a process. This could be as little as one-half of a cycle.
Outage, as defined in IEEE Standard 100,8 does not refer to a specific phenomenon, but
rather to the state of a component in a system that has failed to function as expected.
Also, use of the term interruption in the context of power quality monitoring has no
relation to reliability or other continuity of service statistics. Thus, this term has been
defined to be more specific regarding the absence of voltage for long periods.

Short-Duration Voltage Variations

1.​ This category encompasses the IEC category of voltage dips and short interruptions.
Each type of variation can be designated as instantaneous, momentary, or temporary,
depending on its duration as defined in Table 2.2.
2.​ Short-duration voltage variations are caused by fault conditions, the energization of large
loads which require high starting currents, or intermittent loose connections in power
wiring.
3.​ Depending on the fault location and the system conditions, the fault can cause either
1.​ temporary voltage drops (sags),
2.​ voltage rises (swells),
3.​ or a complete loss of voltage (interruptions).
4.​ The fault condition can be close to or remote from the point of interest. In either case, the
impact on the voltage during the actual fault condition is of the short-duration variation
until protective devices operate to clear the fault.

Interruption

1.​ Definition: An interruption occurs when the supply voltage or load current
decreases to less than 0.1 pu for a period of time not exceeding 1 min.
2.​ Causes: Interruptions can be the result of
1.​ power system faults,
 2.​ equipment failures,
3.​ and control malfunctions.
3.​ Duration of interruptions in fault conditions:
1.​ The interruptions are measured by their duration since the voltage magnitude is
always less than 10 percent of nominal. The duration of an interruption due to a
fault on the utility system is determined by the operating time of utility protective
devices.
2.​ Effect of reclosing on duration:
1.​ Instantaneous reclosing generally will limit the interruption caused by a
nonpermanent fault to less than 30 cycles.
2.​ Delayed reclosing of the protective device may cause a momentary or
temporary interruption.
3.​ **Duration of interruptions in equipment malfunctions:**The duration of an
interruption due to equipment malfunctions or loose connections can be irregular.
Some interruptions may be preceded by a voltage sag when these interruptions
are due to faults on the source system. The voltage sag occurs between the time
a fault initiates and the protective device operates.
4.​ Figure 2.5 shows such a momentary interruption during which voltage on one
phase sags to about 20 percent for about 3 cycles and then drops to zero for
about 1.8 s until the recloser closes back in.

Sags (dips)

1.​ Definition: A sag is a decrease to between 0.1 and 0.9 pu in rms voltage or current
at the power frequency for durations from 0.5 cycle to 1 min.​

2.​ The IEC definition for this phenomenon is dip. The two terms are considered
interchangeable, with sag being the preferred synonym in the U.S. power quality
community.​

3.​ Terminology: Terminology used to describe the magnitude of a voltage sag is often
confusing. A “20 percent sag” can refer to a sag which results in a voltage of 0.8 or 0.2
pu. The preferred terminology would be one that leaves no doubt as to the resulting
voltage level: “a sag to 0.8 pu” or “a sag whose magnitude was 20 percent.” When not
specified otherwise, a 20 percent sag will be considered an event during which the rms
voltage decreased by 20 percent to 0.8 pu. The nominal, or base, voltage level should
also be specified.​

4.​ Causes: Voltage sags are usually associated with system faults but can also be caused
by energization of heavy loads or starting of large motors.​

5.​ Example waveform SLG fault: Figure 2.6 shows a typical voltage sag that can be
associated with a single- line-to-ground (SLG) fault on another feeder from the same
substation. An 80 percent sag exists for about 3 cycles until the substation breaker is
 able to interrupt the fault current. Typical fault clearing times range from 3 to 30 cycles,
depending on the fault current magnitude and the type of overcurrent protection.​
​

6.​ Example: Induction motor starting: Figure 2.7 illustrates the effect of a large motor
starting. An induction motor will draw 6 to 10 times its full load current during start-up.​

7.​ If the current magnitude is large relative to the available fault current in the system at
that point, the resulting voltage sag can be significant. In this case, the voltage sags
immediately to 80 percent and then grad-ually returns to normal in about 3 s. Note the
difference in time frame between this and sags due to utility system faults.​

8.​ Sag duration:​

1.​ Sag durations are subdivided here into three categories

1.​ Instantaneous: 0.5–30 cycles​

2.​ Momentary: 30 cycles–3 s​

​
iii. Temporary: 3 s–1 min​

9.​ These durations are intended to correspond to typical utility protective device
operation times as well as duration divisions recommended by international technical
organizations.​

10.​Effects of voltage sags on power system:​

1.​ Equipment Malfunction: Voltage sags can cause electronic equipment, such as
computers, servers, and industrial controllers, to malfunction or shut down.
Sensitive devices often require a stable voltage supply to function correctly, and
even brief voltage sags can disrupt their operation.
2.​ Reduced Production and Productivity: In industrial settings, voltage sags can
lead to disruptions in production processes, leading to downtime and decreased
productivity. This can result in financial losses for industries heavily reliant on
continuous and stable power supply.
3.​ Data Loss and Corruption: Voltage sags can cause electronic devices, such as
computers and data storage systems, to lose data or experience data corruption.
In critical applications like data centers or financial institutions, this can have
severe consequences.
4.​ Motor Damage: Voltage sags can cause electric motors to draw higher currents
to compensate for the reduced voltage. This increased current can lead to
overheating and mechanical stress, potentially damaging the motors.
11.​Mitigation of voltage sags​
To mitigate the effects of voltage sags on power systems, utilities and industries employ various
solutions:

1.​ Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS): Installing UPS systems can provide backup power
during voltage sags, ensuring continuity of critical operations.
2.​ Voltage Regulators: Automatic voltage regulators (AVRs) can help maintain a stable
output voltage despite voltage fluctuations in the input supply.
3.​ Static Voltage Compensators: These devices can inject reactive power into the system
during voltage sags to mitigate their effects on sensitive loads.
4.​ Dynamic Voltage restorers: It injects the voltage equal and opposite to voltage sag.

Swells

A swell is defined as an increase to between 1.1 and 1.8 pu in rms voltage or current at
the power frequency for durations from 0.5 cycle to 1 min.

As with sags, swells are usually associated with system fault conditions, but they are not as
common as voltage sags. One way that a swell can occur is from the temporary voltage rise on
the unfaulted phases during an SLG fault.

Figure illustrates a voltage swell caused by an SLG fault.

Swells can also be caused by switching off a large load or energizing a large capacitor bank.

Swells are characterized by their magnitude (rms value) and duration.

The severity of a voltage swell during a fault condition is a function of the fault location, system
impedance, and grounding.

On an ungrounded system, with an infinite zero-sequence impedance, the line-to-ground

voltages on the ungrounded phases will be 1.73 pu during an SLG fault condition.

Close to the substation on a grounded system, there will be little or no voltage rise on the
unfaulted phases because the substation transformer is usually connected delta-wye, providing
a low-impedance zero-sequence path for the fault current.

Faults at different points along four-wire, multigrounded feeders will have varying degrees of
voltage swells on the unfaulted phases. A 15 percent swell, like that shown in Fig. 2.8, is
common on U.S. utility feeders.

The term momentary overvoltage is used by many writers as a synonym for the term swell.

Voltage Imbalance
 1.​ Definition 1: Voltage imbalance (also called voltage unbalance) is sometimes defined as
the maximum deviation from the average of the three-phase voltages or currents, divided
by the average of the three-phase voltages or currents, expressed in percent.
2.​ Definition 2: The ratio of either the negative- or zero sequence component to the
positive-sequence component can be used to specify the percent unbalance.
3.​ Voltage unbalance can also be the result of blown fuses in one phase of a three-phase
capacitor bank. Severe voltage unbalance (greater than 5 percent) can result from
single-phasing conditions.

Example:

Calculate the positive sequence and negative sequence component three phase three wire
circuit if Va = 0.9∠0 degrees pu, Vb = 1.1∠240 degrees pu, Vc = 0.95∠120 degrees pu

Waveform Distortion

Waveform distortion is defined as a steady-state deviation from an ideal sine wave of power
frequency principally characterized by the spectral content of the deviation

There are five primary types of waveform distortion:

■ DC offset

■ Harmonics

■ Interharmonics

■ Notching

■ Noise

DC offset. The presence of a dc voltage or current in an ac power system is termed dc

offset.

Cause:

1.​ This can occur as the result of a geomagnetic disturbance or asymmetry of electronic
power converters.
2.​ Incandescent light bulb life extenders, for example, may consist of diodes that reduce
the rms voltage supplied to the light bulb by half-wave rectification.

Effects of DC offset:

1.​ Direct current in ac networks can have a detrimental effect by biasing transformer
cores so they saturate in normal operation.

This causes additional heating and loss of transformer life.

The molecular theory of magnetism was given by Weber and modified by Ewing. According to
this theory:

Magnetic Properties of Core Material: Transformer cores are typically made of materials with
high magnetic permeability, such as laminated silicon steel or ferrite. These materials exhibit a
linear relationship between magnetic flux density (B) and magnetic field strength (H) within a
certain range. Beyond this range, the core becomes saturated, and the relationship between B
and H becomes nonlinear.

DC Bias: When a DC offset is present in the transformer's input or output current, it introduces
a steady magnetic field component in addition to the alternating magnetic field created by the
AC signal. This steady DC component causes the magnetic flux density to shift away from zero,
potentially pushing the core into the nonlinear region.

Each and every molecule of a magnetic substance is a complete magnet in itself, having a north
pole and a south pole of equal strength.

In an unmagnetized substance, the molecular magnets are randomly oriented such that they
form closed chains.

When the substance is magnetized, the molecular magnets are realigned so that north poles of
all molecular magnets point in one direction and south poles of all molecular magnets point in
the opposite direction.

When all the molecular magnets are fully aligned, the substance is said to be saturated with
magnetism

During heating the magnetized specimen, molecular magnets acquire some kinetic energy.
Some of the molecules may get back to the closed chain arrangement. That is why magnetism
of the specimen would reduce on heating.

1.​ Direct current may also cause the electrolytic erosion of grounding electrodes and
other connectors.

When a DC current passes through an electrolyte (a solution that can conduct electricity), ions
in the electrolyte can migrate towards the electrodes. This movement of ions can lead to a
gradual breakdown of the material at the electrodes and connectors, resulting in corrosion or
erosion over time.

Harmonics. Harmonics are sinusoidal voltages or currents having frequencies that are
integer multiples of the frequency at which the supply system is designed to operate
(termed the fundamental frequency; usually 50 or 60 Hz).

Periodically distorted waveforms can be decomposed into a sum of the fundamental frequency
and the harmonics. Harmonic distortion originates in the nonlinear characteristics of devices and
loads on the power system.
Harmonic distortion levels are described by the complete harmonic spectrum with magnitudes
and phase angles of each individual harmonic component. It is also common to use a single
quantity, the total harmonic distortion (THD), as a measure of the effective value of harmonic
distortion. Figure 2.10 illustrates the waveform and harmonic spectrum for a typical
adjustable-speed-drive (ASD) input current. Current distortion levels can be characterized by a
THD value, as previously described, but this can often be misleading. For example, many
adjustable-speed drives will exhibit high THD values for the input current when they are
operating at very light loads. This is not necessarily a significant concern because the
magnitude of harmonic current is low, even though its relative distortion is high.

To handle this concern for characterizing harmonic currents in a consistent fashion, IEEE
Standard 519-1992 defines another term, the total demand distortion (TDD). This term is the
same as the total harmonic distortion except that the distortion is expressed as a percent of
some rated load current rather than as a percent of the fundamental current magnitude at the
instant of measurement. IEEE Standard 519-1992 provides guidelines for harmonic current and
voltage distortion levels on distribution and transmission circuits.

Interharmonics. Voltages or currents having frequency components that are not integer
multiples of the frequency at which the supply system is designed to operate (e.g., 50 or
60 Hz) are called interharmonics. They can appear as discrete frequencies or as a
wideband spectrum.

Interharmonics can be found in networks of all voltage classes. The main sources of
interharmonic waveform distortion are static frequency converters, cycloconverters, induction
furnaces, and arcing devices.

Power line carrier signals can also be considered as interharmonics. Since the first edition of
this book, considerable work has been done on this subject. There is now a better
understanding of the origins and effects of interharmonic distortion. It is generally the result of
frequency conversion and is often not constant; it varies with load. Such interharmonic currents
can excite quite severe resonances on the power system as the varying interharmonic
frequency becomes coincident with natural frequencies of the system. They have been shown
to affect power-line-carrier signaling and induce visual flicker in fluorescent and other arc lighting
as well as in computer display devices.

Effect of harmonics on the transformer, capacitor, energy meter and induction motor.

Effect of harmonics on transformer:

The effect of harmonic currents at harmonic frequencies causes increase in core losses due to
increased iron losses (i.e., eddy currents and hysteresis) in transformers. In addition, increased
copper losses and stray flux losses result in additional heating, and winding insulation stresses,
especially if high levels of dv/dt (i.e., rate of rise of voltage) are present. Temperature cycling
and possible resonance between transformer winding inductance and supply capacitance can
also cause additional losses. The small laminated core vibrations are increased due to the
presence of harmonic frequencies, which can appear as an additional audible noise. The
increased rms current due to harmonics will increase the I2R (copper) losses.

Effect of harmonics on Induction Motors:

Harmonics distortion raises the losses in AC induction motors in a similar way as in transformers
and cause increased heating, due to additional copper losses and iron losses (eddy current and
hysteresis losses) in the stator winding, rotor circuit and rotor laminations. These losses are
further compounded by skin effect, especially at frequencies above 300 Hz. Leakage magnetic
fields caused by harmonic currents in the stator and rotor end windings produce additional stray
frequency eddy current dependent losses. Substantial iron losses can also be produced in
induction motors with skewed rotors due to high-frequency-induced currents and rapid flux
changes (i.e., due to hysteresis) in the stator and rotor. Excessive heating can degrade the
bearing lubrication and result in bearing collapse.

Effect of harmonics on Capacitor:

The reactance of a capacitor is inversely proportional to the frequency, as can be noted in the
formula,

Xc = 1/(2πfC)

where:

Xc = Capacitive reactance

C = Capacitance

f = Frequency

Harmonics cause series and parallel resonances between the capacitors and the rest of the
system. This results in over voltage and high currents, which increase the losses and
overheating of capacitors.

Effect of harmonics on energy meter:

The principal of induction disc meter depends on rotating the moving disc between two
electromagnetic. The electromagnets are energized by alternating currents. The field produced
by the two magnets is displaced in space and phase. The torque is developed by the interaction
of the flux of one of the magnets and the eddy currents induced in the disc by the other. The
torque equation of the induction meter is:

Where and are the effective fluxes on the disc and is the phase difference between the two
fluxes. From the equation of the two fluxes we can conclude that this type of meters are affected
by harmonics presence. This type of meters can have +ve or –ve errors associated with the
harmonic frequencies. The errors are produced by the harmonic torque aiding or opposing the
fundamental torque.

Write the names of the standards applicable to 1) semiconductor manufacturing industry 2)

Harmonic control in power system –In context of power quality disturbances.

ANS-

Standards applicable to semiconductor manufacturing industry -

1.​ SEMI F47 standard for the semiconductor industry – Voltage sag immunity testing –
Relevant for single, two and three phase manufacturing equipment
2.​ IEC standards 61000-4-11 (less than 16 amps) and 61000-4- 34 (greater than 16 amps)
– Voltage sag and short interruption testing – Relevant for single, two and three phase
manufacturing equipment.
3.​ IEC 61000-4-34 Low Frequency Phenomena
4.​ SEMI F47-0706 Specification for Semiconductor Processing Equipment Voltage Sag
Immunity

Standards applicable to harmonic control in power system -

1.​ IEC Standard 61000-4-7, General Guide on Harmonics and Interharmonics

Measurement and Instrumentation, for Power Supply Systems and Equipment.
2.​ IEC Standard 61000-4-30, Power Quality Measurement Methods.
3.​ IEC Standard 61000-4-15, Testing and Measurement
Techniques—Flickermeter—Functional and Design Specifications.
4.​ IEEE Std 1453™, IEEE Recommended Practice—Adoption of IEC 61000-4-15:2010,
Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC)—Testing and Measurement
Techniques—Flickermeter—Functional and Design Specifications

Link to Question Bank

Question Bank on Module 01

Advanced Questions (Not for students use)

ng a system approach rather than handling them as individual problems.

There are three major reasons for the increased concern:

Major reasons for increased concern about power quality

Reason 1-
We know that newer generation load equipment with microprocessor-based controls and
power electronics devices is more sensitive to power quality variations than was
equipment used in the past. And also electronically controlled equipment or energy
efficient equipment are very much sensitive to the deviations in the supply voltage and
frequency.

Our power system is designed for ac motors and incandescent lamps etc. but nowadays power
systems supply power to adjustable speed motor drives, microprocessor-controlled equipment,
computers, high efficiency lights.

In power systems, sensitive loads refer to electrical devices or equipment that are particularly
vulnerable to variations in voltage, frequency, or other disturbances in the electrical supply.
These loads are highly sensitive and can be easily affected by even minor fluctuations in the
power quality. The term "sensitive" implies that they require a stable and reliable power supply
to function correctly and avoid potential damage or malfunction.

Examples of sensitive loads include:

●​ Computers and IT equipment

●​ Medical equipment
●​ Communication systems
●​ Industrial control systems
●​ Precision manufacturing equipment
●​ Laboratory equipment

Reason 2

The overall power system efficiency gets reduced because lack of power quality which
results in use of shunt capacitance for power factor correction to reduce loss and use of
high efficiency adjustable speed drives hence which in increased harmonic level in the
system.

Reason 3

Our system is an interconnected system hence failure of any component has more
important consequences.

Explanation

The power system is a prime example of an interconnected system, and its operation relies on a
delicate balance of various components working together cohesively. In a power system,
electricity is generated at power plants and then transmitted over long distances through
transmission lines to reach distribution substations. From there, it is further distributed through
local power lines to homes, businesses, and industries.
The interconnected nature of the power system is primarily due to its integration into a grid,
which allows the generation, transmission, and distribution of electricity to be interconnected
and operate as a unified whole. This interconnectedness offers numerous advantages, such as
efficient power transfer over long distances, sharing of power resources, and improved overall
reliability.

However, the interconnectedness also means that the failure of any single component within the
power system can have significant consequences, affecting various aspects of daily life and
essential services. Here are some reasons why the failure of any component in the power
system is critical:

Cascading effect: The power grid operates in a delicate balance, where power generation
must match demand at all times. If a major component, such as a large power plant or a key
transmission line, fails, it can disrupt the balance, leading to the overloading of other
components and causing a cascading effect of failures across the system.

Widespread power outages: A component failure, especially in a crucial transmission line or a

major substation, can result in widespread power outages, affecting a large number of
customers over a wide geographical area.

To mitigate the impact of component failures, power system operators implement various
strategies, including redundancy, backup systems, and robust contingency plans. Advanced
monitoring and control systems help identify and isolate issues promptly, allowing for faster
restoration and minimizing the extent of the outage. Additionally, ongoing investments in grid
modernization and infrastructure upgrades enhance the resilience of the power system,
reducing the likelihood of failures and their consequences.

Power Quality Definitions

Power quality is defined in many sources, which give different meaning to different people and
sometimes conflicting statements of power quality due to a lot of confusion on the meaning of
the term power quality.

Therefore, its definition has not been universally agreed upon. It is used synonymously with
supply reliability, service quality, voltage quality, quality of supply, and quality of consumption.

The definitions given by IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) and IEC
(International Electrotechnical Commission) are provided here.

1.​ IEC 61000-4-30

The IEC definition of power quality, given in IEC 61000-4-30, states “Characteristics of the
electricity at a given point on an electrical system, evaluated against a set of reference
technical parameters.”
 1.​ IEC 61000-1-1

Electromagnetic compatibility is a term related to power quality used in IEC 61000-1-1, which
states that “Electromagnetic compatibility is the ability of an equipment or system to
function satisfactorily in its electromagnetic environment without introducing intolerable
electromagnetic disturbances to anything in that environment.”

1.​ IEEE Dictionary

The definition of power quality given in the IEEE dictionary states that “Power quality is the
concept of powering and grounding sensitive equipment in a manner that is suitable to
the operation of that equipment.”

1.​ Consumer End

Power quality is ultimately a consumer-driven issue, and the end user’s point of reference takes
precedence. Therefore, the following definition of a power quality problem is used for this
course: Any power problem manifested in voltage, current, or frequency deviations that
results in failure or misoperation of customer equipment.

IMPORTANCE OF POWER QUALiTY

Before the widespread use of power electronic equipment, microprocessors for industrial
control, and automation in factories and offices, minor variations in power did not seriously
affect the operation of conventional equipment such as lights and induction motors. If the supply
voltage dipped because of a fault (i.e., a sag in voltage occurred), the lights just dimmed, and
the induction motor produced a lower output.

These days the effects of power interruptions are rather costly.

Reference 10 lists the following cases to illustrate the cost of short-duration power interruptions:

1.​ One glass plant estimates that a five-cycle interruption, a momentary interruption less
than a tenth of a second, can cost about $200,000.
2.​ A major computer center reports that a 2-s interruption can cost some $600,000.
3.​ In some factories, following a voltage sag, the restarting of assembly lines may require
clearing the lines of damaged work, restarting of boilers, and reprogramming automatic
controls at a typical cost of $50,000 per incident.
4.​ One automaker estimated that total losses from momentary power interruptions at all its
plants run to about $10 million a year.

Power Quality Standards

If power quality problems increase to a level that this start affecting not only those who are
creating them, but also other consumers, then it becomes a matter of concern. In view of these
power pollution problems, a number of organizations such as IEC, IEEE, American National
Standards Institute (ANSI), British Standards (BS), European Norms (EN), Computer Business
Equipment Manufacturers Association (CBEMA), and Information Technology Industry Council
(ITIC) have developed different standards to specify the permissible limits of various
performance indices to maintain the level of power quality to an acceptable benchmark and to
provide guidelines to the customers, manufactures, and utilities on curbing the various events
causing the power quality problems.

IEC 61000 (International Electrotechnical Commission)

The IEC classifies electromagnetic phenomena into the groups shown in Table

The IEC 61000-2-5 standard defines a classification system for electromagnetic phenomena.
This classification system is used to categorize electromagnetic disturbances that can affect the
operation of electrical and electronic equipment.

The IEC 61000-2-5 standard defines three categories of electromagnetic phenomena:

Conducted disturbances: These disturbances are caused by the flow of current through
conductors. They can be caused by lightning strikes, switching transients, and other sources of
electrical noise.

Radiated disturbances: These disturbances are caused by the emission of electromagnetic

fields. They can be caused by radio transmitters, radar systems, and other sources of
electromagnetic radiation.

Combined disturbances: These disturbances are a combination of conducted and radiated

disturbances. They can be caused by lightning strikes, switching transients, and other sources
of electrical noise that also emit electromagnetic radiation.

It uses the frequency ranges and divides the problems into 3 categories: low frequency (< 9kHz
) , high frequency ( > 9kHz ) and electrostatic discharge phenomenon.

In power systems, electrostatic discharge (ESD) can have significant implications, particularly in
terms of equipment safety and reliability. The IEC 61000-2-5 standard addresses ESD within the
broader context of electromagnetic environments, which includes power systems. Here are
some specific considerations and guidelines related to ESD in power systems:

ESD in Power Systems

Electrostatic Discharge (ESD) in power systems is a less common but important

phenomenon, especially in the context of high-voltage equipment, gas-insulated switchgear
(GIS), and substations. ESD is the sudden flow of electricity between two electrically
charged objects caused by contact, an electrical short, or dielectric breakdown.

ANSI Standard C84

 1.​ The American National Standards Institute sets guidelines for 120-V service in ANSI
Standard C84-1 (1999) Shown in Figure are the ranges labeled “A” and “B.”
2.​ Range A is the optimal voltage range, and is 5 percent of nominal voltage. For 120-V
service, range A is 114 V to 126 V.
3.​ Range “B” is acceptable but not optimal, and is in the range of 91.7 percent to 105.8
percent of nominal. This range is allowable for infrequent use. Note that voltage sags
and surges go beyond these limits.

IEEE Standard 519

1.​ IEEE Standard 519 [2.1] (denoted IEEE Std. 519-1992) is titled “IEEE Recommended
Practices and Requirements for Harmonic Control in Electrical Power Systems.”
2.​ The abstract of this standard notes that power conversion units are being used today in
industrial and commercial facilities, and there are challenges associated with harmonics
and reactive power control of such systems.
3.​ The standard covers limits to the various disturbances recommended to the power
distribution system.

IEEE 1159

The categories and characteristics of power system electromagnetic phenomena in tabular

form. (Definition, causes, magnitude and duration)

| | Categories | Typical spectral content | Typical duration | Typical voltage magnitude | | --- | --- |
--- | --- | --- | | 1.0 | Transients | | | | | 1.1 | Impulsive | | | | | 1.1.1 | Nanosecond | 5-ns rise | <50
ns | | | 1.1.2 | Microsecond | 1-ms rise | 50 ns–1 ms | | | 1.1.3 | Millisecond | 0.1-ms rise | >1 ms |
| | 1.2 | Oscillatory | | | | | 1.2.1 | Low frequency | <5 kHz | 0.3–50 ms | 0–4 pu | | 1.2.2 | Medium
frequency | 5–500 kHz | 20 ms | 0–8 pu | | 1.2.3 | High frequency | 0.5–5 MHz | 5 ms | 0–4 pu | |
2.0 | Short-duration variations | | | | | 2.1 | Instantaneous | | | | | 2.1.1 | Interruption | | 0.5–30
cycles | <0.1 pu | | 2.1.2 | Sag (dip) | | 0.5–30 cycles | 0.1–0.9 pu | | 2.1.3 | Swell | | 0.5–30
cycles | 1.1–1.8 pu | | 2.2 | Momentary | | | | | 2.2.1 | Interruption | | 30 cycles–3 s | <0.1 pu | |
2.2.2 | Sag (dip) | | 30 cycles–3 s | 0.1–0.9 pu | | 2.2.3 | Swell | | 30 cycles–3 s | 1.1–1.4 pu | | 2.3
| Temporary | | | | | 2.3.1 | Interruption | | 3 s–1 min | <0.1 pu | | 2.3.2 | Sag (dip) | | 3 s–1 min |
0.1–0.9 pu | | 2.3.3 | Swell | | 3 s–1 min | 1.1–1.2 pu | | 3.0 | Long-duration variations | | | | | 3.1
| Interruption, sustained | | >1 min | 0.0 pu | | 3.2 | Under voltages | | >1 min | 0.8–0.9 pu | | 3.3 |
Over voltages | | >1 min | 1.1–1.2 pu | | 4.0 | Voltage unbalance | | Steady state | 0.5–2% | | 5.0
| Waveform distortion | | | | | 5.1 | DC offset | | Steady state | 0–0.1% | | 5.2 | Harmonics |
0–100th harmonic | Steady state | 0–20% | | 5.3 | Inter harmonics | 0–6 kHz | Steady state |
0–2% | | 5.4 | Notching | | Steady state | | | 5.5 | Noise | Broadband | Steady state | 0–1% | | 6.0 |
Voltage fluctuations | <25 Hz | Intermittent | 0.1–7% | | 7.0 | Power frequency | | | 0.2–2 Pst | |
| variations | | <10 s | |

1.​ Instantaneous: 0.5–30 cycles

2.​ Momentary: 30 cycles–3 s
3.​ Temporary: 3 s–1 min
NOTE: s 5 second, ns 5 nanosecond, ms 5 microsecond, ms 5 millisecond, kHz 5 kilohertz,
MHz 5 megahertz, min 5 minute, pu 5 per unit.

Classification of Power Quality Events as per IEEE 1159

Transients

1.​ The term transients has long been used in the analysis of power system variations to
denote an event that is undesirable and momentary in nature.
2.​ The notion of a damped oscillatory transient due to an RLC network is probably what
most power engineers think of when they hear the word transient.
3.​ Broadly speaking, transients can be classified into two categories, impulsive and
oscillatory. These terms reflect the waveshape of a current or voltage transient. We will
describe these two categories in more detail

Impulsive transient

1.​ An impulsive transient is a sudden, non–power frequency change in the

steady-state condition of voltage, current, or both that is unidirectional in polarity
(primarily either positive or negative).
2.​ To explain impulsive transient electrical events, you can use the following analogy:
Imagine a calm river flowing steadily. Suddenly, a large boulder falls into the river,
creating a significant splash and waves. The splash and waves are the transient events
in this analogy, and they last for a brief moment before the river returns to its steady flow.
3.​ Impulsive transients are normally characterized by their rise and decay times, which can
also be revealed by their spectral content.
4.​ For example, a 1.2 50-s 2000-volt (V) impulsive transient nominally rises from zero to its
peak value of 2000 V in 1.2 s and then decays to half its peak value in 50 s.
5.​ Causes of Impulsive transients: The most common cause of impulsive transients is
lightning. Figure 2.1 illustrates a typical current impulsive transient caused by lightning.
6.​ Because of the high frequencies involved, the shape of impulsive transients can be
changed quickly by circuit components and may have significantly different
characteristics when viewed from different parts of the power system.
7.​ They are generally not conducted far from the source of where they enter the power
system, although they may, in some cases, be conducted for quite some distance along
utility lines.
8.​ Impulsive transients can excite the natural frequency of power system circuits and
produce oscillatory transients.

In an electrical system, an impulsive transient can be caused by:

Protection against Impulsive transients

Impulsive transients can be harmful to electrical equipment, especially sensitive electronic

devices.

To protect against these events, surge protection devices, such as surge protectors or transient
voltage suppressors, are installed in electrical systems. These devices help to divert the excess
energy from the transient away from the equipment, preventing damage and ensuring the
smooth operation of the electrical system.

Oscillatory transients

An oscillatory transient is a sudden, non–power frequency change in the steady-state

condition of voltage, current, or both, that includes both positive and negative polarity
values.

They are classified as:

1.​ High frequency transient

2.​ Medium frequency transient
3.​ Low frequency transient

High frequency transient:

1.​ Oscillatory transients with a primary frequency component greater than 500 kHz
and a typical duration measured in microseconds (or several cycles of the
principal frequency) are considered high-frequency transients.
2.​ These transients are often the result of a local system response to both positive and
negative polarity values.
3.​ An oscillatory transient consists of a voltage or current whose instantaneous value
changes polarity rapidly.
4.​ It is described by its spectral content (predominant frequency), duration, and magnitude.
5.​ The spectral content subclasses defined in Table 2.2 are high, medium, and low
frequency. The frequency ranges for these classifications are chosen to coincide with
common types of power system oscillatory transient phenomena.

Medium frequency component:

1.​ A transient with a primary frequency component between 5 and 500 kHz with
duration measured in the tens of microseconds (or several cycles of the principal
frequency) is termed a medium-frequency transient.
2.​ Back-to-back capacitor energization results in oscillatory transient currents in the tens of
kilohertz as illustrated in Cable switching results in oscillatory voltage transients in the
same frequency range.
 3.​ Medium-frequency transients can also be the result of a system response to an
impulsive transient.

Low frequency transient:

1.​ A transient with a primary frequency component less than 5 kHz, and a duration
from 0.3 to 50 ms, is considered a low-frequency transient.
2.​ This category of phenomena is frequently encountered on utility sub-transmission and
distribution systems and is caused by many types of events.
3.​ The most frequent is capacitor bank energization, which typically results in an oscillatory
voltage transient with a primary frequency between 300 and 900 Hz. The peak
magnitude can approach 2.0 pu, but is typically 1.3 to 1.5 pu with a duration of between
0.5 and 3 cycles depending on the system damping.
4.​ Oscillatory transients with principal frequencies less than 300 Hz can also be found on
the distribution system. These are generally associated with ferroresonance and
transformer energization.
5.​ Transients involving series capacitors could also fall into this category. They occur when
the system responds by resonating with low-frequency components in the transformer
inrush current (second and third harmonic) or when unusual conditions result in
ferroresonance.

It is also possible to categorize transients (and other disturbances) according to their mode.

Basically, a transient in a three-phase system with a separate neutral conductor can be either
common mode or normal mode,

Common Mode : It appears between line and ground or neutral and ground,

Normal Mode: It appears between line and neutral.

Effects of Transients on power system

These transients can have significant effects on power systems, and their impact depends on
the magnitude, duration, and frequency of the impulsive events. Here are some of the main
effects of impulsive transients on power systems:

1.​ Voltage Spikes: Impulsive transients can cause rapid voltage spikes, which can exceed
the equipment's voltage rating and lead to insulation failures, arcing, and damage to
connected devices.
2.​ Electromagnetic Interference (EMI): Impulsive transients generate electromagnetic
fields that can induce interference on nearby communication systems and electronic
devices. This interference can disrupt normal operations and lead to data corruption or
even equipment malfunction.
 3.​ Power Quality Issues: Impulsive transients can cause voltage fluctuations, flickering
lights, and voltage imbalances, resulting in power quality issues. These issues can affect
sensitive equipment, disrupt industrial processes, and lead to financial losses.
4.​ Overvoltage and Overcurrent Conditions: Impulsive transients, such as lightning
strikes or capacitor switching, can cause temporary overvoltage and overcurrent
conditions in the power system. These conditions can damage equipment and lead to
power interruptions.
5.​ Protective Device Operation: Impulsive transients can trigger protective devices, such
as surge protectors and circuit breakers, leading to frequent operations that might not
always be necessary. This can affect the overall stability and reliability of the power
system.
6.​ Insulation Stress: The high rates of change of voltage and current during impulsive
transients can put significant stress on the insulation of power system components.
Repeated stress can lead to insulation breakdown and potential short circuits.
7.​ Transient Stability: In multi-machine power systems, impulsive transients can cause
temporary instability, affecting the synchronization between generators and leading to
voltage collapse or cascading failures.
8.​ Equipment Damage: Impulsive transients can subject power system equipment, such
as transformers, motors, and electronic devices, to sudden and extreme stress.
This stress can lead to insulation breakdown, mechanical failures, and damage to
sensitive electronic components.

Mitigation

To mitigate the effects of impulsive transients on power systems, several protective measures
are employed:

1.​ Surge Arresters: These devices divert transient overvoltages to the ground, protecting
equipment from excessive voltage levels.
2.​ Surge Suppressors: These devices limit the rate of voltage rise during transients,
reducing stress on equipment.
3.​ Shielding and Filtering: For sensitive electronic devices, shielding and filtering
techniques are used to reduce the impact of electromagnetic interference.
4.​ Grounding: Proper grounding practices help dissipate transient currents safely into the
ground, reducing their impact on equipment

Long-Duration Voltage Variations

Long-duration variations encompass root-mean-square (rms) deviations at power frequencies

for longer than 1 min.

ANSI C84.1 specifies the steady-state voltage tolerances expected on a power system. A
voltage variation is considered to be long duration when the ANSI limits are exceeded for
greater than 1 min.
Long-duration variations can be either overvoltages or under voltages. Overvoltages and under
voltages generally are not the result of system faults, but are caused by load variations on the
system and system switching operations. Such variations are typically displayed as plots of rms
voltage versus time.

Overvoltage

1.​ An overvoltage is an increase in the rms ac voltage greater than 110 percent at the
power frequency for a duration longer than 1 min.
2.​ Reasons for overvoltages:
1.​ Overvoltages are usually the result of load switching (e.g., switching off a large
load or energizing a capacitor bank).
2.​ The overvoltages result because either the system is too weak for the desired
voltage regulation or voltage controls are inadequate.
1.​ Weak grid / Power system means that the voltage at the connecting point
will be very sensitive to any variation of the load.
2.​ Strong grid / Power system means that the voltage will be not affected
and will stay unchanged. It is why it is called stiff.
3.​ Incorrect tap settings on transformers can also result in system overvoltages.

Undervoltage

1.​ An undervoltage is a decrease in the rms ac voltage to less than 90 percent at the
power frequency for a duration longer than 1 min.
2.​ Reasons for undervoltages:
1.​ Undervoltages are the result of switching events that are the opposite of the
events that cause overvoltages.
2.​ A load switching on or a capacitor bank switching off can cause an undervoltage
until voltage regulation equipment on the system can bring the voltage back to
within tolerances.
3.​ Overloaded circuits can result in undervoltages also.

Sustained interruptions

1.​ When the supply voltage has been zero for a period of time in excess of 1 min, the
long-duration voltage variation is considered a sustained interruption.
2.​ Voltage interruptions longer than 1 min are often permanent and require human
intervention to repair the system for restoration.
3.​ The term sustained interruption refers to specific power system phenomena and, in
general, has no relation to the usage of the term outage. Utilities use outage or
interruption to describe phenomena of similar nature for reliability reporting purposes.
However, this causes confusion for end users who think of an outage as any interruption
of power that shuts down a process. This could be as little as one-half of a cycle.
Outage, as defined in IEEE Standard 100,8 does not refer to a specific phenomenon, but
rather to the state of a component in a system that has failed to function as expected.
 Also, use of the term interruption in the context of power quality monitoring has no
relation to reliability or other continuity of service statistics. Thus, this term has been
defined to be more specific regarding the absence of voltage for long periods.

Short-Duration Voltage Variations

1.​ This category encompasses the IEC category of voltage dips and short interruptions.
Each type of variation can be designated as instantaneous, momentary, or temporary,
depending on its duration as defined in Table 2.2.
2.​ Short-duration voltage variations are caused by fault conditions, the energization of large
loads which require high starting currents, or intermittent loose connections in power
wiring.
3.​ Depending on the fault location and the system conditions, the fault can cause either
1.​ temporary voltage drops (sags),
2.​ voltage rises (swells),
3.​ or a complete loss of voltage (interruptions).
4.​ The fault condition can be close to or remote from the point of interest. In either case, the
impact on the voltage during the actual fault condition is of the short-duration variation
until protective devices operate to clear the fault.

Interruption

1.​ Definition: An interruption occurs when the supply voltage or load current
decreases to less than 0.1 pu for a period of time not exceeding 1 min.
2.​ Causes: Interruptions can be the result of
1.​ power system faults,
2.​ equipment failures,
3.​ and control malfunctions.
3.​ Duration of interruptions in fault conditions:
1.​ The interruptions are measured by their duration since the voltage magnitude is
always less than 10 percent of nominal. The duration of an interruption due to a
fault on the utility system is determined by the operating time of utility protective
devices.
2.​ Effect of reclosing on duration:
1.​ Instantaneous reclosing generally will limit the interruption caused by a
nonpermanent fault to less than 30 cycles.
2.​ Delayed reclosing of the protective device may cause a momentary or
temporary interruption.
3.​ **Duration of interruptions in equipment malfunctions:**The duration of an
interruption due to equipment malfunctions or loose connections can be irregular.
Some interruptions may be preceded by a voltage sag when these interruptions
are due to faults on the source system. The voltage sag occurs between the time
a fault initiates and the protective device operates.
 4.​ Figure 2.5 shows such a momentary interruption during which voltage on one
phase sags to about 20 percent for about 3 cycles and then drops to zero for
about 1.8 s until the recloser closes back in.

Sags (dips)

1.​ Definition: A sag is a decrease to between 0.1 and 0.9 pu in rms voltage or current
at the power frequency for durations from 0.5 cycle to 1 min.​

2.​ The IEC definition for this phenomenon is dip. The two terms are considered
interchangeable, with sag being the preferred synonym in the U.S. power quality
community.​

3.​ Terminology: Terminology used to describe the magnitude of a voltage sag is often
confusing. A “20 percent sag” can refer to a sag which results in a voltage of 0.8 or 0.2
pu. The preferred terminology would be one that leaves no doubt as to the resulting
voltage level: “a sag to 0.8 pu” or “a sag whose magnitude was 20 percent.” When not
specified otherwise, a 20 percent sag will be considered an event during which the rms
voltage decreased by 20 percent to 0.8 pu. The nominal, or base, voltage level should
also be specified.​

4.​ Causes: Voltage sags are usually associated with system faults but can also be caused
by energization of heavy loads or starting of large motors.​

5.​ Example waveform SLG fault: Figure 2.6 shows a typical voltage sag that can be
associated with a single- line-to-ground (SLG) fault on another feeder from the same
substation. An 80 percent sag exists for about 3 cycles until the substation breaker is
able to interrupt the fault current. Typical fault clearing times range from 3 to 30 cycles,
depending on the fault current magnitude and the type of overcurrent protection.​
​

6.​ Example: Induction motor starting: Figure 2.7 illustrates the effect of a large motor
starting. An induction motor will draw 6 to 10 times its full load current during start-up.​

7.​ If the current magnitude is large relative to the available fault current in the system at
that point, the resulting voltage sag can be significant. In this case, the voltage sags
immediately to 80 percent and then grad-ually returns to normal in about 3 s. Note the
difference in time frame between this and sags due to utility system faults.​

8.​ Sag duration:​

1.​ Sag durations are subdivided here into three categories

1.​ Instantaneous: 0.5–30 cycles​
 2.​ Momentary: 30 cycles–3 s​
​
iii. Temporary: 3 s–1 min​

9.​ These durations are intended to correspond to typical utility protective device
operation times as well as duration divisions recommended by international technical
organizations.​

10.​Effects of voltage sags on power system:​

1.​ Equipment Malfunction: Voltage sags can cause electronic equipment, such as
computers, servers, and industrial controllers, to malfunction or shut down.
Sensitive devices often require a stable voltage supply to function correctly, and
even brief voltage sags can disrupt their operation.
2.​ Reduced Production and Productivity: In industrial settings, voltage sags can
lead to disruptions in production processes, leading to downtime and decreased
productivity. This can result in financial losses for industries heavily reliant on
continuous and stable power supply.
3.​ Data Loss and Corruption: Voltage sags can cause electronic devices, such as
computers and data storage systems, to lose data or experience data corruption.
In critical applications like data centers or financial institutions, this can have
severe consequences.
4.​ Motor Damage: Voltage sags can cause electric motors to draw higher currents
to compensate for the reduced voltage. This increased current can lead to
overheating and mechanical stress, potentially damaging the motors.
11.​Mitigation of voltage sags​

To mitigate the effects of voltage sags on power systems, utilities and industries employ various
solutions:

1.​ Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS): Installing UPS systems can provide backup power
during voltage sags, ensuring continuity of critical operations.
2.​ Voltage Regulators: Automatic voltage regulators (AVRs) can help maintain a stable
output voltage despite voltage fluctuations in the input supply.
3.​ Static Voltage Compensators: These devices can inject reactive power into the system
during voltage sags to mitigate their effects on sensitive loads.
4.​ Dynamic Voltage restorers: It injects the voltage equal and opposite to voltage sag.

Swells

A swell is defined as an increase to between 1.1 and 1.8 pu in rms voltage or current at
the power frequency for durations from 0.5 cycle to 1 min.
As with sags, swells are usually associated with system fault conditions, but they are not as
common as voltage sags. One way that a swell can occur is from the temporary voltage rise on
the unfaulted phases during an SLG fault.

Figure illustrates a voltage swell caused by an SLG fault.

Swells can also be caused by switching off a large load or energizing a large capacitor bank.

Swells are characterized by their magnitude (rms value) and duration.

The severity of a voltage swell during a fault condition is a function of the fault location, system
impedance, and grounding.

On an ungrounded system, with an infinite zero-sequence impedance, the line-to-ground

voltages on the ungrounded phases will be 1.73 pu during an SLG fault condition.

Close to the substation on a grounded system, there will be little or no voltage rise on the
unfaulted phases because the substation transformer is usually connected delta-wye, providing
a low-impedance zero-sequence path for the fault current.

Faults at different points along four-wire, multigrounded feeders will have varying degrees of
voltage swells on the unfaulted phases. A 15 percent swell, like that shown in Fig. 2.8, is
common on U.S. utility feeders.

The term momentary overvoltage is used by many writers as a synonym for the term swell.

Voltage Imbalance

1.​ Definition 1: Voltage imbalance (also called voltage unbalance) is sometimes defined as
the maximum deviation from the average of the three-phase voltages or currents, divided
by the average of the three-phase voltages or currents, expressed in percent.
2.​ Definition 2: The ratio of either the negative- or zero sequence component to the
positive-sequence component can be used to specify the percent unbalance.
3.​ Voltage unbalance can also be the result of blown fuses in one phase of a three-phase
capacitor bank. Severe voltage unbalance (greater than 5 percent) can result from
single-phasing conditions.

Example:

Calculate the positive sequence and negative sequence component three phase three wire
circuit if Va = 0.9∠0 degrees pu, Vb = 1.1∠240 degrees pu, Vc = 0.95∠120 degrees pu

Waveform Distortion

Waveform distortion is defined as a steady-state deviation from an ideal sine wave of power
frequency principally characterized by the spectral content of the deviation
There are five primary types of waveform distortion:

■ DC offset

■ Harmonics

■ Interharmonics

■ Notching

■ Noise

DC offset. The presence of a dc voltage or current in an ac power system is termed dc

offset.

Cause:

1.​ This can occur as the result of a geomagnetic disturbance or asymmetry of electronic
power converters.
2.​ Incandescent light bulb life extenders, for example, may consist of diodes that reduce
the rms voltage supplied to the light bulb by half-wave rectification.

Effects of DC offset:

1.​ Direct current in ac networks can have a detrimental effect by biasing transformer
cores so they saturate in normal operation.

This causes additional heating and loss of transformer life.

The molecular theory of magnetism was given by Weber and modified by Ewing. According to
this theory:

Magnetic Properties of Core Material: Transformer cores are typically made of materials with
high magnetic permeability, such as laminated silicon steel or ferrite. These materials exhibit a
linear relationship between magnetic flux density (B) and magnetic field strength (H) within a
certain range. Beyond this range, the core becomes saturated, and the relationship between B
and H becomes nonlinear.

DC Bias: When a DC offset is present in the transformer's input or output current, it introduces
a steady magnetic field component in addition to the alternating magnetic field created by the
AC signal. This steady DC component causes the magnetic flux density to shift away from zero,
potentially pushing the core into the nonlinear region.

Each and every molecule of a magnetic substance is a complete magnet in itself, having a north
pole and a south pole of equal strength.
In an unmagnetized substance, the molecular magnets are randomly oriented such that they
form closed chains.

When the substance is magnetized, the molecular magnets are realigned so that north poles of
all molecular magnets point in one direction and south poles of all molecular magnets point in
the opposite direction.

When all the molecular magnets are fully aligned, the substance is said to be saturated with
magnetism

During heating the magnetized specimen, molecular magnets acquire some kinetic energy.
Some of the molecules may get back to the closed chain arrangement. That is why magnetism
of the specimen would reduce on heating.

1.​ Direct current may also cause the electrolytic erosion of grounding electrodes and
other connectors.

When a DC current passes through an electrolyte (a solution that can conduct electricity), ions
in the electrolyte can migrate towards the electrodes. This movement of ions can lead to a
gradual breakdown of the material at the electrodes and connectors, resulting in corrosion or
erosion over time.

Harmonics. Harmonics are sinusoidal voltages or currents having frequencies that are
integer multiples of the frequency at which the supply system is designed to operate
(termed the fundamental frequency; usually 50 or 60 Hz).

Periodically distorted waveforms can be decomposed into a sum of the fundamental frequency
and the harmonics. Harmonic distortion originates in the nonlinear characteristics of devices and
loads on the power system.

Harmonic distortion levels are described by the complete harmonic spectrum with magnitudes
and phase angles of each individual harmonic component. It is also common to use a single
quantity, the total harmonic distortion (THD), as a measure of the effective value of harmonic
distortion. Figure 2.10 illustrates the waveform and harmonic spectrum for a typical
adjustable-speed-drive (ASD) input current. Current distortion levels can be characterized by a
THD value, as previously described, but this can often be misleading. For example, many
adjustable-speed drives will exhibit high THD values for the input current when they are
operating at very light loads. This is not necessarily a significant concern because the
magnitude of harmonic current is low, even though its relative distortion is high.

To handle this concern for characterizing harmonic currents in a consistent fashion, IEEE
Standard 519-1992 defines another term, the total demand distortion (TDD). This term is the
same as the total harmonic distortion except that the distortion is expressed as a percent of
some rated load current rather than as a percent of the fundamental current magnitude at the
instant of measurement. IEEE Standard 519-1992 provides guidelines for harmonic current and
voltage distortion levels on distribution and transmission circuits.
Interharmonics. Voltages or currents having frequency components that are not integer
multiples of the frequency at which the supply system is designed to operate (e.g., 50 or
60 Hz) are called interharmonics. They can appear as discrete frequencies or as a
wideband spectrum.

Interharmonics can be found in networks of all voltage classes. The main sources of
interharmonic waveform distortion are static frequency converters, cycloconverters, induction
furnaces, and arcing devices.

Power line carrier signals can also be considered as interharmonics. Since the first edition of
this book, considerable work has been done on this subject. There is now a better
understanding of the origins and effects of interharmonic distortion. It is generally the result of
frequency conversion and is often not constant; it varies with load. Such interharmonic currents
can excite quite severe resonances on the power system as the varying interharmonic
frequency becomes coincident with natural frequencies of the system. They have been shown
to affect power-line-carrier signaling and induce visual flicker in fluorescent and other arc lighting
as well as in computer display devices.

Effect of harmonics on the transformer, capacitor, energy meter and induction motor.

Effect of harmonics on transformer:

The effect of harmonic currents at harmonic frequencies causes increase in core losses due to
increased iron losses (i.e., eddy currents and hysteresis) in transformers. In addition, increased
copper losses and stray flux losses result in additional heating, and winding insulation stresses,
especially if high levels of dv/dt (i.e., rate of rise of voltage) are present. Temperature cycling
and possible resonance between transformer winding inductance and supply capacitance can
also cause additional losses. The small laminated core vibrations are increased due to the
presence of harmonic frequencies, which can appear as an additional audible noise. The
increased rms current due to harmonics will increase the I2R (copper) losses.

Effect of harmonics on Induction Motors:

Harmonics distortion raises the losses in AC induction motors in a similar way as in transformers
and cause increased heating, due to additional copper losses and iron losses (eddy current and
hysteresis losses) in the stator winding, rotor circuit and rotor laminations. These losses are
further compounded by skin effect, especially at frequencies above 300 Hz. Leakage magnetic
fields caused by harmonic currents in the stator and rotor end windings produce additional stray
frequency eddy current dependent losses. Substantial iron losses can also be produced in
induction motors with skewed rotors due to high-frequency-induced currents and rapid flux
changes (i.e., due to hysteresis) in the stator and rotor. Excessive heating can degrade the
bearing lubrication and result in bearing collapse.

Effect of harmonics on Capacitor:

The reactance of a capacitor is inversely proportional to the frequency, as can be noted in the
formula,

Xc = 1/(2πfC)

where:

Xc = Capacitive reactance

C = Capacitance

f = Frequency

Harmonics cause series and parallel resonances between the capacitors and the rest of the
system. This results in over voltage and high currents, which increase the losses and
overheating of capacitors.

Effect of harmonics on energy meter:

The principal of induction disc meter depends on rotating the moving disc between two
electromagnetic. The electromagnets are energized by alternating currents. The field produced
by the two magnets is displaced in space and phase. The torque is developed by the interaction
of the flux of one of the magnets and the eddy currents induced in the disc by the other. The
torque equation of the induction meter is:

Where and are the effective fluxes on the disc and is the phase difference between the two
fluxes. From the equation of the two fluxes we can conclude that this type of meters are affected
by harmonics presence. This type of meters can have +ve or –ve errors associated with the
harmonic frequencies. The errors are produced by the harmonic torque aiding or opposing the
fundamental torque.

Write the names of the standards applicable to 1) semiconductor manufacturing industry 2)

Harmonic control in power system –In context of power quality disturbances.

ANS-

Standards applicable to semiconductor manufacturing industry -

1.​ SEMI F47 standard for the semiconductor industry – Voltage sag immunity testing –
Relevant for single, two and three phase manufacturing equipment
2.​ IEC standards 61000-4-11 (less than 16 amps) and 61000-4- 34 (greater than 16 amps)
– Voltage sag and short interruption testing – Relevant for single, two and three phase
manufacturing equipment.
3.​ IEC 61000-4-34 Low Frequency Phenomena
4.​ SEMI F47-0706 Specification for Semiconductor Processing Equipment Voltage Sag
Immunity
Standards applicable to harmonic control in power system -

1.​ IEC Standard 61000-4-7, General Guide on Harmonics and Interharmonics

Measurement and Instrumentation, for Power Supply Systems and Equipment.
2.​ IEC Standard 61000-4-30, Power Quality Measurement Methods.
3.​ IEC Standard 61000-4-15, Testing and Measurement
Techniques—Flickermeter—Functional and Design Specifications.
4.​ IEEE Std 1453™, IEEE Recommended Practice—Adoption of IEC 61000-4-15:2010,
Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC)—Testing and Measurement
Techniques—Flickermeter—Functional and Design Specifications

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