ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

• A changing magnetic field can, under suitable conditions, induce current in an electric
conductor.
• This phenomenon is known as electromagnetic induction and was discovered by Michael
Faraday.
• It has led to cheap large-scale production of electrical energy in power stations.

Induced Electromotive Force (EMF)

• Whenever there is relative motion between a magnetic field and conductor, an induced
current resulting from an induced e.m.f. flows in the conductor.
Experiments to investigate the conditions necessary for electromagnetic induction

(a) Using a Straight Conductor

Apparatus

• Thick electric conductor, U-shaped magnet, galvanometer, connecting wires.

Procedure

 Set up the apparatus as shown.

 Observe the effect on the galvanometer when the conductor AB is:

(i) moved vertically downwards between the poles of the magnet.

(ii) moved vertically upwards between the poles of the magnet.

(iii) held stationary between the poles of the magnet.

(iv) moved parallel to the direction of the magnetic field.

(v) moved to cut the field at angles of, say, 30o and 60o.

(vi) held stationary and the magnet moved upwards, then downwards.

Observations
 The galvanometer deflects when the conductor AB cuts the magnetic field lines.

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 There is no flow of current when there is no relative motion between the conductor and the
magnetic field.
 The magnitude of the induced current increases with the angle θ at which the conductor cuts
the field, being maximum when θ is 90o and zero when θ is 0o (moving parallel to the
magnetic field).
 The direction of deflection reverses when the direction of motion is reversed.
 When the magnetic field is moved while the conductor remains stationary, the same
observations are made.

(ii) Using a Coil

Apparatus
• Coil, galvanometer, magnet.
Procedure

• Set the apparatus as shown.

• Observe the effect on the galvanometer when:

(i) the magnet is moved into the coil at a steady speed.
(ii) the magnet is moved out of the coil at a steady speed.
(iii) the magnet is held stationary in the coil.
(iv) the coil is moved to the stationary magnet.
(v) the coil is moved away from the stationary magnet.
(vi) the magnet is held stationary in the stationary coil

Observation
 The pointer of the galvanometer deflects in one direction when the magnet is moved into the
coil and in the opposite direction when the magnet is moved out of the coil.
 The same observations are made when the coil is moved while the magnet is stationary.
 No deflection is observed when there is no relative motion between the coil and magnetic
field.

Explanation
 The electrons entering a magnetic field deviate as a result of force whose direction is given
by Fleming’s right-hand rule.
 Consider a conductor AB cutting a magnetic field, as shown below. Applying Fleming’s
right-hand rule, the electrons in the conductor experience a force that compels them to move
from point A to B. This constitutes a conventional current in the opposite direction.

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Conclusion
From the above experiments, it is clear that whenever there is relative motion between a
magnetic field and conductor, an induced current resulting from an induced e.m.f. flows in
the conductor.

Factors Affecting the Magnitude of Induced E.m.f

(a) Rate of Change of magnetic flux linkage
Magnetic Flux
• It is the product of magnetic field strength and perpendicular area covered by the field
lines.
• A faster withdrawal gives rise to a higher rate of change in magnetic flux linking the coil,
which in turn gives an increased induced e.m.f.
• It is observed that the faster the magnet is withdrawn from the coil, the greater the deflection
on the galvanometer and hence the induced e.m.f.

(b) Strength of the magnetic field.

• The stronger the magnetic field, the higher the induced e.m.f. A stronger magnetic field is
obtained by increasing the current flowing in the coil.

• It is observed that whenever current through the ammeter is increased, a greater deflection is
obtained on the galvanometer when the wire PQ cuts the field.
(c) Number of turns in the coil

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• An increase in the number of turns of the coil increases the magnitude of the induced
e.m.f.

Faraday’s law of Electromagnetic Induction

• Faraday’s law of Electromagnetic Induction is obtained from the following observations:
(i) An e.m.f. is induced in a circuit whenever the magnetic flux linking it changes.
(ii) The magnitude of the induced e.m.f. increases with:
 The rate of change of the flux linkage.
 The number of turns of the coil.
• Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction states that the magnitude of the induced e.m.f. is
directly proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux linkage.
Direction of induced current

• If the deflection is to the right when the current is switched on, the current enters the
galvanometer through terminal A which may be marked as positive and leave through
terminal B, which is negative.

Lenz’s Law
• Induced current produces a magnetic field whose effect can be used to predict the direction of
the current.
• Lenz’s law states that the direction of the induced e.m.f. is such that the induced current
produces a magnetic effect that opposes the change producing it.
• The set up below can be used to investigate the direction of induced current.

Explanation
 As the north pole of the magnet is moved towards the coil, the induced current flows in
the coil, forming an electromagnet with a north pole at the end nearest the in-coming
magnet. This opposes the movement of the magnet (a).

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 When the magnet is moved away, the induced current in the coil flows in such a way that
a south pole is formed at the end of the coil nearest to the receding magnet. This again
opposes the movement of the magnet, (b).
• If s straight conductor is used as shown below, it is observed that when the wire AB is moved
upwards, perpendicular to the magnetic field, the induced current flows from B to A, (b).

• When the wire is moved downwards perpendicular to the magnetic field, the current flows
from A to B, (c).

Fleming’s Right-hand Rule

• The direction of induced current in a wire can be determined using Fleming’s right-hand rule.
• It states that if the thumb and the first two fingers of the right hand are held mutually at
right angles with the first finger pointing in the direction field, the thumb pointing in the
direction of motion, then the second finger points in the direction of the induced current.

• Fleming’s right-hand rule, also known as the dynamo rule, agrees with Lenz’s law.
• In (b), Fleming’s right-hand rule predicts that the induced current flows from X to Y.
Flemings left-hand rule confirms current to be consistent with Lenz’s law; the current must
flow from X to Y to produce a force to the left opposing the motion to the right.

Example

A wire conductor in the form of a rectangle is pulled at a steady speed across a uniform

magnetic field, as shown below

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(a) Determine in the figure the direction of induced current in the sides AB, AD, CD and BC, if any.

(b) Explain what happens when:

i) all the sides are moving in the uniform field and state the potential difference across points
AB

(ii) the side CD leaves the field.

(c) Suggest why in the absence of friction, more force is required to keep the coil moving at a steady
speed when side CD leaves the field.

Solution

(a) Sides AD and BC have no induced emf and hence no induced current, since they are not cutting
the magnetic field. Sides AB and CD cut the magnetic field, causing current to flow from B to A in
AB and C to D in CD

(b) (i) The currents in AB and CD are equal in magnitude and oppose each other. The resultant
potential difference across the points A and B is zero.

(ii) Induced emf in AB sets up a current that takes the path ADCB. There is no induced current on
side CD.

(c). The flow of current in AB creates a force that tends to oppose the motion.

Example
ABC is a section of a single coil of a wire. Movement of the magnet causes the current to flow as
shown. In what direction is the magnet moving?

Solution

The current in the loop creates the magnetic field shown. Side X is the north pole while Y is south
pole. By Lenz’s law, the magnet must be moving away from Y, so that the motion is opposed by the
magnetic effect of the current in the loop.

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Mutual Induction
• Mutual induction is said to occur when a changing current in one coil induces a current in
another placed close to it.
• The changing magnetic flux in the first coil (primary coil) links with the second coil
(secondary coil), inducing an e.m.f. in it.

Experiment to demonstrate mutual induction

Apparatus

• Two coils P and S, galvanometer, battery, a.c. power source, switch, rheostat, connecting
wires.

Procedure.

• Set the apparatus as shown below.

Note the deflection on the galvanometer:

(i) on closing the switch.
(ii) on opening the switch.
(iii) when, with the switch closed, the current is increased.
(iv) when, with the switch closed, the current is decreased.
(v) The d.c. source is replaced by an a.c. one.

Observation
 When the switch is closed, the pointer deflects in one direction, then comes back to zero.
 When the switch is opened, the pointer deflects to the opposite direction and falls back to
zero.
 Increasing the primary current causes a deflection while decreasing it causes a deflection in
the opposite direction.
 When the d.c. is replaced by an a.c. source, the pointer vibrates about point zero.

Explanation
 When the switch is closed, the current in the primary increases from zero to a maximum
value within a very short time. The magnetic flux in the primary coil linking with the
secondary coil increases from zero to a maximum value in the same interval of time, inducing
an e.m.f. in the secondary. Current then flows, hence the deflection of the galvanometer.

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 The induced e.m.f. in the secondary coil is momentary because once the current in the
primary builds up to its maximum value, there is no further change in magnetic flux in the
primary.
 When the switch is opened, the current in the primary takes a very short time to fall from
maximum value to zero. The magnetic flux in the primary linking with secondary turns also
falls from maximum value to zero, inducing an e.m.f. in the secondary coil.
 The induced e.m.f. in the secondary is much higher when current in primary is switched off
than when it is switched on, because the current in the circuit takes a much shorter time to
die off than build up.
 The direction of the induced current in each case can be verified by Lenz’s law.

How to increase the induced e.m.f. in the secondary coil

The induced e.m.f. in the secondary can be increased by:

(i) Winding the primary and secondary coils on a soft iron rod. This is because the soft iron
concentrates the magnetic flux in both coils.
(ii) Winding both primary and secondary coils on a soft iron ring. The ring enables all the
magnetic flux of the primary to form concentric loops within it, thus reaching the secondary
coil.
(iii) Having more turns in the secondary coil.
The e.m.f. is induced in each turn of the secondary coil since the magnetic flux of the primary
coil links with each. The total induced e.m.f. is the sum of the e.m.f. induced in the individual
turns.

Applications of Electromagnetic Induction

Electromagnetic induction is applied in many areas. Some of these are:
(i) transformer.
(ii) moving-coil microphone.
(iii) induction coil.

Transformers
• A transformer transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another by mutual induction.
• It consists of a primary coil, where an alternating current is fed and a secondary coil forming
the output.
• The coils are wound on a common soft iron core.

• The secondary voltage increases when the number of turns in the secondary coil is increased.
• The magnitude of induced e.m.f. increases with the number of turns of the secondary,
because an e.m.f. is induced in each turn.
Step-down Transformer

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• A step-down transformer has more turns in the primary coil (Np) than in the secondary coil
(Ns).
Ns
=n is known as the turns ratio.
Np

• The turns ratio for a step-down transformer is less than 1. Consequently, the changing
magnetic flux in the primary induces a relatively smaller secondary voltage Vs than the
primary voltage Vp. Thus, Vp is greater than Vs.
Step-up Transformer
• The step-up transformer has more turns on the secondary coil than that of the primary, i.e., Ns
is greater than Np.

• The turns ratio is greater than 1 and the secondary (output) voltage Vs is greater than the
primary (input) voltage.
Note
In a step-down transformer, secondary current Is is greater than the primary current Ip, while
in a step-up transformer, the primary current Ip is greater than the secondary current Is.

Useful Transformer Equations

secondary voltage number of secondary turns
Experiments show that; =
primary voltage number of primary turns

Vs Ns
=
Vp Np
This equation is referred to as the turns rule and assumes that the coils have negligible resistance.
Since, electrical power = current × voltage;
Power input = primary current × primary voltage
= IP × VP
Power output = secondary current × secondary voltage
=IS × VS

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power output
Efficiency (%) = × 100
power input
Vs ×Is
= ×100
Vp × Ip

For an ideal transformer (with no energy loss), the efficiency is 100%. Thus;
Ip × Vp = Is × Vs
Vs Ip Ns
Therefore, = = =n
Vp Is Np

Energy Losses in a Transformer

• There are four main causes of energy loss in a transformer, namely:

(i) Flux Leakage

• All the magnetic flux produced by the primary may not link up with the secondary coil, hence
reducing e.m.f. induced in the secondary.
Remedy
 Flux leakage is reduced by efficient design of the transformers to ensure maximum flux
linkage. The secondary coil is wound over the primary coil or the coils are wound next to
each other on a common core.

(ii)Resistance of Coils (Copper Losses)

• Heat is generated in the coils when the current flows through them. This is because of the
resistance of the wire making up the coils.
Remedy
 Thick copper wires (low resistance) are used in the secondary coils of a step-down
transformer and the primary coils of step-up transformers to reduce this heating effect.

Eddy Currents in the Core

• The alternating magnetic flux in the soft iron core cuts the very soft iron core, inducing an
e.m.f. in it, which in turn sets up what is known as eddy currents to flow in the core. These
eddy currents are sufficiently large to generate heat. In addition, the eddy currents have an
associated flux that tends to oppose the flux changes in the primary. These effects reduce the
power transfer to the secondary.
Remedy
 To reduce eddy currents, the core is laminated, that is, made of thin sheets of insulated soft
iron plates. The current induced in each sheet is very small, causing minimal heating effect.

Hysteresis Loss
• Some energy is lost in form of heat in magnetising and demagnetising the core every time the
current reverses. This energy loss is called hysteresis loss.
Remedy
 Hysteresis loss is minimised by using a core of a soft magnetic material which magnetise and
demagnetise easily, e.g., soft iron.

Practical Transformers
• Heat is always generated in transformers despite the above measures.
• The heat generated in small transformers used in domestic appliances is low and therefore air
is sufficient to cool them.

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• Large transformers used in power stations and along mains transmitting lines have a lot of
heat generated in them and are cooled by oil, which does not easily evaporate.

Example 1
The figure below shows a model power transmission system consisting of a power generator, a step-
up transformer, transmission cables and a step-down transformer.

The generator produces 400 kW at 500 V, which is fed into transformer T1, whose ratio of primary to
secondary turns 1: 80. The power is then transmitted through cables whose total resistance is 200 Ω
to a step-down transformer T2. Given that the efficiency of T1 is 100 % and that of T2 is 95 %,
calculate:
(a) the current through the primary of T1.
(b) the voltage across the secondary of T1.
(c) the voltage across the primary of T2.
(d) the maximum power output of T2.

Solution
(a) Power input = primary current × primary voltage
𝑃𝑃 400 × 103
P = Vp × Ip ⇒Ip = = =800 A
𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝 500
𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 𝑁𝑁𝑠𝑠
(b) =
𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝 𝑁𝑁𝑝𝑝
𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 80
= ⇒ Vs =80 × 500 =40 000 V
𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝 1
Vs = 40 kV
(c) Since T1 is 100% efficient; power input = power output.
400 × 103 =Vs ×Is
But Vs = 40 000 V
400 ×103
So, Is = = 10 A
40 000
Current through the secondary coil of T1 and the transmission cables is 10 A. Voltage lost
during transmission is obtained from V = IR;
V = 10 × 200= 2 000 V
𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= −
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑇𝑇2 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑇𝑇1 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
= 40 000 – 2 000
= 38 000 v
(d) Power fed into T2 = voltage across primary of T2 × current through primary T2
= 38 000 × 10= 380 000 W= 380 kW
95 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
Since T2 is 95% efficient; =
100 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖

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95
∴ power output = × power input
100
95
= × 380 × 103 = 3.61 × 105 W
100
= 361 kW
Example 2
A transformer is to be used to provide power to a 12 V lamp from an a.c. mains supply of 240 V.
Find the number of turns of the secondary coil if the primary coil has 1 000 turns.

Solution
𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠 𝑁𝑁𝑠𝑠
=
𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝 𝑁𝑁𝑝𝑝

12 𝑁𝑁𝑠𝑠
=
240 1 000

12
Ns = ×1 000 =50 turns
240

Moving-coil Microphone
• The moving-coil microphone is another important application of electromagnetic induction.

• A coil is wound on a cylindrical former connected to a diaphragm and placed between the
poles of a pot of magnet, as shown in (a).
• Sound waves from a source set the diaphragm in vibration, causing the coil to move to and
fro, cutting the magnetic field.
• The field is radial so that the motion of the coil is perpendicular to it for maximum flux
linkage.
• Induced e.m.f. of varying magnitude sets up varying current in the coil.
• An amplifier is used to increase the amplitude of this current before being fed into the
loudspeaker to be converted back to sound.

The Induction Coil

• The induction coil consists of few turns of thick insulated copper wire and a secondary coil of
many turns of thin insulated copper wire, both wound on a soft iron core.
• The primary coil is connected to a direct current (d.c.) source of low voltage.

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• When the switch is closed the soft iron rod is magnetized due to current on the primary coil
and attracts the soft iron armature.
• The armature opens the contact and cuts off primary currents reducing magnetic field to zero.
This is turn induces a large emf in the secondary coil by mutual induction.
• The spring pulls the armature back to make the contact again and process repeats itself.
• The induced emf in the secondary coil is higher when primary current is switched off than
when it is switched on. This is because current takes a longer time to increase from zero to
maximum than to decrease from maximum to zero.
• Sparking occurs at the contact due to magnetic field of the primary. A capacitor is therefore
connected across the contacts to minimize sparking effects by decaying magnetic flux to zero.
• Sparks forms across gap between the ends of secondary coil and can be used to ignite petrol-
air mixture in a car engine.

Alternating Current (a.c.) Generator (Alternator)

• A generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
• A simple generator has rectangular, curved permanent magnetic poles, two slip-rings and
carbon (graphite) brushes as shown below.

 The poles of the magnet are curved so that the magnetic field is radial.
 Current enters and leaves the coil through the brushes, which press against slip-rings. The
brushes are made of carbon (graphite) because:
o It is a good conductor of electricity
o It is slippery and therefore can act as a lubricant.
 When the coil is being rotated in clockwise direction and just passing the horizontal position,
the side AB of the coil is moving up while the other side (CD) is moving downwards. The
two sides are cutting the field perpendicularly and thus maximum e.m.f. (EO) is induced.
 Applying Fleming’s right-hand rule, the flow of current is in direction A→B→C→D. This
current flows through the external circuit via the slip-ring 2 and brush X. Brush Y and slip-
ring 1 then complete the circuit.
 Brush X is thus positive terminal while Y is negative.
 As the coil rotates from the horizontal to the vertical position, the angle at which the sides of
the coil cut the magnetic field reduces from 90o to 0o. Consequently, the induced e.m.f.
reduces from the maximum value E0 to zero.
 When the coil rotates past the vertical position, side AB moves downwards as side CD moves
upwards. The angle θ at which the sides of the coil cut the magnetic field increases from 0o to
90o when the coil is horizontal. The induced e.m.f. thus increases from zero to maximum
value Eo.
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 The path of current flow in the coil reverses, i.e., D→C→B→A. Brush Y now becomes
positive and X negative.
 Thus, for one cycle, an alternating e.m.f. E is induced in the coil. The magnitude of this e.m.f.
obeys a sinusoidal equation, E = Eo sin θ, where Eo is the maximum e.m.f. and θ the
inclination of the plane of the coil to the vertical.
 Below is the variation of induced e.m.f. with time for one revolution of the coil.

E
 By Ohm’s law, I = , where R is the resistance of the circuit.
R
 If I is the current in the coil at any instant, then;
E 𝐸𝐸𝑜𝑜
I= = sin 𝜃𝜃
R 𝑅𝑅

Eo
 If Io is the maximum value of I, then Io = and I = Io sin θ
R
 The graph of the induced current I against the angle of inclination θ is similar to that of
induced e.m.f. E against θ, as shown alongside.

 The frequency of the alternating current (a.c.) is the number of revolutions made by the coil
in one second. The a.c. from the mains in Kenya has frequency of 50 Hz.

Direct Current (d.c.) Generator

• A d.c. generator differs from an a.c. generator in that it has a split-ring (commutator) while
an a.c. generator has slip-rings.

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 As the coil rotates into the vertical position from the horizontal position with the side AB
moving up, the induced e.m.f. and current through resistor R decreases from a maximum
value to zero. The polarity of brush Y is positive and X negative.
 When the coil is in vertical position, the e.m.f. is zero. The brushes touch the gaps within the
commutator.
 When the vertical position is passed, the half-rings exchange brushes since the induced
currents AB and CD change direction, but the direction of current through the external
resistor R remains the same. Brush Y therefore remains positive and X negative.
 The output of a d.c. generator is shown below.

The induced e.m.f. or current for both a.c. and d.c. generator can be increased
by:
(i) increasing the speed of rotation of the coil.
(ii) increasing the number of turns of the coil.
(iii) increasing the strength of the magnetic field.
(iv) winding the coil on a laminated soft iron core
• In some generators such as the bicycle dynamo, shown below, the coil remains stationary
while the magnet rotates.
• The advantage of such generators is that there are no brushes which get worn out.

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