CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the study

Globally, meat serves as food and is a rich source of essential micronutrients, fats, minerals, and protein that

are required for growth and healthy living. Due to its short shelf-life and the essential nutrients which

promote microbial growth, there is a need for adequate preservation and proper handling during processing

which has led to the growth of the fast-food chain has brought about a high demand for ready-to-eat meat

products. Ready-to-eat food sold on the street is an old practice common in most developing countries as a

way of providing income (Falegan et al., 2017). Such food is an inexpensive meal accessed by the populace

and can also represent the culture of local communities (Oshoma et al., 2019). Suya is a ready-to-eat spicy,

barbecued, smoked or roasted meat. Its origin can be traced to the Hausa people of northern Nigeria,

SubSaharan Africa, where their main occupation is rearing of cattle and growing of cash crops (Orogu and

Oshilim, 2017). Thus, it is an important preoccupation and a major source of livelihood for the people. This

generated the production of different types of beef products such as kundi, kilishi, balangu and suya, which

are very popular protein-rich foods (Olayinka and Sani, 2014). It has been reported (kim et al., 2019) that

meat products' microbial contamination often occurs at the abattoir, even before processing and dressing.

Where cattle carcasses are laid on untreated surfaces and washed with the available water, which might be

unhygienic, improper handling, dirty standards during processing, unsterilized equipment or utensils, and

unavailability of standard storage facilities can predispose meat products to microbial contamination (James

and wang, 2019; Roobab et al., 2020), Storage conditions, temperature, atmospheric conditions, pH, moisture

content, and availability of nutrients are factors that promote microbial contamination (Katiku et al., 2022;

Bethseda, 2013). Microbial contamination is the leading cause of food poisoning, spoilage, and associated

illnesses (Yashmin et al., 2020) where consumption of suya contaminated with microorganisms can result to

foodborne infection thus constituting food hazard risk (Bello and Bello, 2020).

1
Foodborne infection is an important public health issue worldwide, affecting millions of people and causing

a substantial burden on health systems. They are caused by consumption of food contaminated with harmful

microorganisms where food borne infection has become a global threat to the health of the public as the

world Health Organization (WHO) estimated that unsafe food causes approximately 600 million cases of

foodborne diseases and 420,000 deaths worldwide each year.

Considering the implication of microbial contamination of ready-to-eat foods which could result to

foodborne infection, it is important to conduct an examination of the microbial loads in ready-to-eat foods to

add to the existing knowledge of ensuring food security and also to control the risk factors associated with

the consumption of ready-to-eat foods.

1.2 Aim

To isolate and evaluate the bacterial load in ready-to-eat suya sold by vendors in Anyigba

1.3 Objectives of the study

i. To determine the bacterial count in suya samples collected from different vendors

ii. To isolate and identify the specific bacterial contaminant present in the samples.

iii. To determine the faecal coliform present in the samples.

1.4 Statement of Research Problem

2
Ready-to-eat foods, particularly street-vended items such as suya, are widely consumed in many parts of

Nigeria due to their accessibility and affordability. However, these foods often pose significant public health

risks due to potential contamination with pathogenic microorganisms that can lead to foodborne illnesses.

Despite the widespread consumption of suya in Anyigba, there is limited research on its microbial load and

the hygienic practices of vendors. Foodborne diseases represent a significant global health issue, particularly

in developing countries where there may be insufficient regulatory oversight regarding food hygiene

practices among street vendors. This research seeks to address the problem by evaluating the microbial load

in street-vended foods such as suya sold by street vendors in anyigba and correlating these findings with the

hygienic practices observed.

This research problem involves examining the microbial load of street-vended foods such as suya which is a

crucial step in contributing valuable insights toward ensuring consumer safety and also enhancing hygienic

standards or practices among local vendors. This investigation is also important for informing policy-makers

aiming to regulate food safety effectively as well as addressing challenges related foodborne disease

1.5 Justification for the Study

Suya is a widely consumed street food in Anyigba, and its popularity means that a large segment of the

population is potential exposed to microbial contamination. Contaminated suya can serve as a vehicle for

foodborne pathogens, leading to outbreaks of illnesses such as gastroenteritis, cholera, and other bacterial

infection.

Most suya vendors who can be seen in various city corners and public places have little or no formal

education. Hence, the challenge of knowing about hygienic practices in food handling and sustaining the

same (James and Wang, 2019; Song et al., 2020). The lack of proper hygiene practices during its preparation

and sale can result in microbial contamination, leading to foodborne illnesses such as diarrhea and food

poisoning.

3
This study will identify the microbial risk associated with suya, thereby contributing to public health

awareness and also help to reduce the incidence and prevalence of foodborne diseases in Anyigba.

1.6 Scope of the Work

This research focuses on the examination of the bacterial load in suya sold by street vendors in Anyigba and

also analyzes the relationship between bacterial load and vendor hygiene practices. The study will also assess

the total viable bacteria count.

4
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Origin and Popularity of Suya

Suya is a spiced, grilled meat skewer that originated in West Africa, particularly among the Hausa people of

northern Nigeria. It has since become a staple street food enjoyed across Nigeria and beyond. Suya’s rich

cultural significance, unique preparation methods, and widespread appeal have made it one of the most

recognizable dishes in Nigerian cuisine (Adeyemi and Akanbi, 2021). Suya traces its roots to the Hausa-

Fulani ethnic group, known for cattle rearing and meat processing.

Historically, the Hausa people practiced barbecue-style meat roasting, an influence from North African and

Middle Eastern grilling techniques (Abubakar and Bello, 2020). The trans-Saharan trade routes played a

crucial role in spreading spices used in suya, such as ginger, cloves, and chili peppers (Adebayo, 2019).The

migration of Hausa traders to southern Nigeria, Ghana, and Cameroon contributed to suya’s widespread

acceptance in urban centers (Bello, 2022). Prepared suya is often served with some slices of onions, cabbage,

tomatoes, and/or cucumber to improve its nutritional value, organoleptic and antioxidant properties.

2.2 Microbial Contamination in Ready-To-Eat Foods (Suya)

Microbial contamination of ready-to-eat (RTE) foods is a major public health concern, especially in

developing countries where street foods vending is widespread. Ready-to-eat (RTE) foods such as suya, are

highly susceptible to microbial contamination due to improper handling, poor hygiene, and exposure to

environmental contaminants (Adebayo and Lawal, 2022). Contamination has been shown to occur at the

point of procuring and transporting raw meats, processing, selling, packaging, and storage. Sadly, the spices

(which contribute to the nutritional value) used during the preparation and packaging of suya are also

potential sources of contamination. Hence, identifying and addressing these areas of contamination during

suya preparation, production, and consumption is very important

5
2.3 Common Sources of Bacterial Contamination

Suya can become contaminated at various points during its preparation, handling, and sale. Major sources of

microbial contamination include:

2.3.1 Poor Personal Hygiene of Vendors: Many suya vendors do not follow proper handwashing or wear

protective gloves. Handling raw meat and cooked suya with bare hands can transfer harmful bacteria (Odu

and Imaku, 2023). Vendors may also sneeze, cough, or talk over the food, introducing airborne contaminants.

2.3.2 Contaminated Raw Meat: The quality of the meat used for suya plays a significant role in

contamination. Meat from sick animals or poorly stored meat can carry pathogenic bacteria (Nkanga and

Uraih, 2021). Cross-contamination occurs when raw meat comes into contact with already cooked suya.

2.3.3 Inadequate Storage and Temperature Control: Leaving suya at room temperature for long hours

promotes bacterial growth. Refrigeration is rarely used by street vendors, leading to food spoilage and high

bacterial load (Nkanga and Uraih, 2021).

2.3.4 Exposure to Environmental Contaminants: Since suya is often sold at open markets or roadside

stalls, it is exposed to airborne bacteria, dust, and pollution (Odu and Imaku, 2023). Flies and insects that

land on suya can transfer harmful microorganisms from waste and sewage sources.

2.4 Foodborne Pathogens Associated with Suya

Bacterial contamination in suya is a major food safety concern due to poor handling, exposure to

environmental contaminants, and inadequate storage. Common foodborne pathogens like Salmonella spp., E.

coli, Staphylococcus aureus, and Listeria monocytogenes have been isolated from suya, posing serious health

risks. Implementing proper hygiene, sanitation, and food safety regulations is essential to reduce

contamination and protect public health.

Salmonella spp.

6
Causes salmonellosis, leading to diarrhea, vomiting, and fever. Often linked to raw or undercooked meat and

cross-contamination (Adebayo and Lawal, 2022).

Escherichia coli (E. coli)

Certain strains like E. coli O157:H7 can cause severe food poisoning. Associated with contaminated water,

unwashed hands, and fecal contamination (Nkanga and Uraih, 2021).

Staphylococcus aureus

Produces heat-stable toxins that cause nausea, vomiting, and abdominal cramps. Spread through improper

handling and lack of hygiene (Odu and Imaku, 2023).

Clostridium perfringens

Common in poorly stored and reheated foods. Causes foodborne illness characterized by diarrhea and

stomach cramps.

Listeria monocytogenes

A concern in ready-to-eat foods because it can grow even at low temperatures. Causes listeriosis, which is

dangerous for pregnant women and immunocompromised individuals (Adebayo and Lawal, 2022).

2.5 Factors Influencing Bacterial Contamination in Suya

Bacterial contamination in ready-to-eat (RTE) foods like suya is influenced by multiple factors, including

hygiene practices, meat handling, storage conditions, environmental exposure, and vendor knowledge. This

section explores the major causes of contamination and their impact on public health.

2.5.1 Poor Hygiene Practices Among Vendors: Many suya vendors lack formal training in food hygiene,

leading to unsafe handling and preparation practices. The use of Contaminated Cooking Equipment where

the use of Grills, knives, and chopping boards are often reused without proper cleaning, allowing bacteria to

accumulate (Olaoye and Onilude, 2010). Some vendors do not wash utensils properly, leading to the survival

7
and growth of bacteria on surfaces (Odu and Imaku, 2023). Vendors who do not wear protective clothing

(aprons, hairnets, gloves) risk contaminating suya with hair, sweat, or dirt (Nkanga and Uraih, 2021).

2.5.2 Contaminated Raw Meat: Raw meat used in suya preparation may already contain pathogenic

bacteria due to poor handling during slaughter, transport, or storage. Slaughterhouse and Butchering

Practices also influence bacterial contamination where In Nigeria, traditional slaughterhouses often lacks

proper sanitation, leading to meat contamination with fecal bacteria such as E. coli and Salmonella (Oranusi

et al., 2013). The Raw meat could be cross-contaminated during transportation. Meat is often transported in

open vehicles, exposing it to dust, flies, and environmental bacteria (Nkanga and Uraih, 2021).

2.5.3 Environmental Factors Affecting Suya Contamination: The environment in which suya is prepared

and sold plays a significant role in bacterial contamination levels. Open-air preparation exposes suya to dust,

smoke, and bacteria from the environment (Odu and Imaku, 2023). Insect and Rodent Infestation such as

flies, cockroaches, and rodents are attracted to raw meat and leftover suya, increasing the risk of

contamination with Salmonella and E. coli (Nkanga and Uraih, 2021).

2.5.4 Unhygienic Water Sources: Vendors often use untreated water for washing hands, meat, and utensils,

introducing bacteria and parasites into the food chain (Oranusi et al., 2013).contaminated water sources can

contain Vibrio cholerae (causes cholera) and E. coli, leading to outbreaks of waterborne diseases.

2.5.5 Poor Storage and Handling Conditions: Leaving suya at room temperature for long periods

encourages bacterial proliferation (Nkang AND Uraih, 2021). Lack of Storage facilities leads to the growth

of Listeria monocytogenes in improperly stored suya (WHO,2021).

2.6 Mitigation Strategies for Reducing Bacterial Load in Suya

Contaminated suya has been linked to foodborne illnesses caused by bacteria such as Escherichia coli,

Salmonella, Staphylococcus aureus, Listeria monocytogenes, and Bacillus cereus (Nkanga and Uraih, 2021).

To ensure food safety, various mitigation strategies must be implemented to reduce bacterial load in suya,

8
including proper hygiene, improved cooking methods, storage control, regulatory enforcement, and

consumer awareness.

2.6.1 Proper Personal Hygiene of Vendors

Maintaining good hygiene among suya vendors is crucial for reducing bacterial contamination. Vendors

should wash hands with soap and clean water before handling meat and after touching contaminated surfaces

(WHO, 2021). Use of gloves reduces direct contact with suya and prevents cross-contamination (Odu and

Imaku, 2023). Vendors should undergo medical check-ups to detect and prevent disease transmission

(Nkanga and Uraih, 2021). Proper waste disposal by vendors tends to avoid the accumulation of food waste,

which attracts flies and rodents that can contaminate suya (Adegunwa et al., 2020).

2.6.2 Adequate Meat Handling and Processing Techniques

Thorough meat washing using clean, potable water and mild vinegar solutions can remove surface bacteria

(Odu and Imaku, 2023). Ingredients should be free from contaminants and stored hygienically (Nkanga and

Uraih, 2021). Raw meat should not come into contact with cooked suya or other ready-to-eat foods (WHO,

2021).

2.6.3 Safe Storage and Handling Practices

Proper storage prevents the growth of Listeria monocytogenes and other psychrotrophic bacteria (WHO,

2021). Use of clean, airtight containers protects suya from dust, flies, and airborne bacteria (Odu and Imaku,

2023). Prolonged storage at room temperature should be avoided and suya should be consumed within 2

hours if left at room temperature, as bacteria like Bacillus cereus multiply rapidly (Adegunwa et al., 2020).

2.6.4 Water Quality and Sanitation

9
 Use of clean water for washing meat and utensils. Contaminated water introduces E. coli and Vibrio

cholerae into suya (Odu and Imaku, 2023). Regular watertesting also ensures that bacteria levels in water

sources are within safe limits (Nkanga and Uraih, 2021).

2.6.5 Consumer Awareness and Safe Consumption Practices

Awareness campaigns should inform consumers about safe suya consumption and risks of contaminated

meat (Adegunwa et al., 2020). Prompt consumption should be encouraged were suya should be eaten

immediately after purchase to avoid bacterial growth (WHO, 2021). Proper reheating practices should be

encouraged where consumers should reheat suya properly before eating stored leftovers (Odu and Imaku,

2023). Consumers should purchase suya only from clean and reputable vendors who follow proper hygiene

practices (Adegunwa et al., 2020)

2.6.6 Regulatory Enforcement and Food Safety Policies

Authorities must enforce hygiene laws for suya vendors (Nkanga and Uraih, 2021). Regular food inspection

and microbial testing should be carried out by Government agencies and should monitor bacterial levels in

suya to prevent foodborne outbreaks (Adebayo and Lawal, 2022). Vendors should be certified in food

handling and hygiene before being allowed to sell suya (Adegunwa et al., 2020)

2.7 Regulatory Issues Related to Ready-to-Eat foods

Ready-to-eat (RTE) foods, including suya, are widely consumed in Nigeria. However, food safety concerns

arise due to bacterial contamination, improper handling, and lack of regulatory enforcement (Adebayo and

Lawal, 2022). Regulations governing RTE foods aim to protect public health, ensure safe food production

and vending, and reduce foodborne illnesses. Despite the existence of food safety laws and regulatory

agencies, enforcement remains a challenge due to poor vendor compliance, lack of monitoring, and

inadequate infrastructure (Nkanga and Uraih, 2021).

2.7.1 Lack of Proper Enforcement

10
Many suya vendors operate informally, making it difficult for authorities to regulate them (Odu and Imaku,

2023). Weak enforcement allows vendors to sell contaminated food, increasing the risk of foodborne

illnesses (Adebayo and Lawal, 2022).

2.7.2 Inadequate Infrastructure and Monitoring

Lack of proper food testing laboratories delays contamination detection (SON, 2021). Limited personnel for

regular inspections at street food vending points.

2.7.3 Poor Vendor Compliance

Many vendors lack food safety knowledge and do not adhere to basic hygiene practices (Nkanga and Uraih,

2021).The absence of compulsory vendor training and certification leads to unsafe food handling.

2.7.4 Weak Consumer Protection Mechanisms

Consumers lack awareness of their food safety rights, limiting their ability to demand hygienic suya (Odu

and Imaku, 2023). Limited reporting mechanisms for foodborne illnesses result in undetected outbreaks.

11
 CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Study Area

This study was conducted in Anyigba, Kogi state, Nigeria. Anyigba’s dynamic urban setting with numerous

roadside vendors offers an ideal environment for assessing food safety in ready-to-eat foods. The local

climate, population density, and varying hygienic practices among vendors contribute to its relevance as a

representative study area.

3.2 Materials

Weighing balance, petri dishes, suya ,pipettes, measuring cylinder, autoclave, beakers, wire loops, pasteur

pipettes, aluminium foil, spatula, distilled water, test tubes, glass rod, incubator, labelling tape, 70% ethanol,

marker, and test tube rack.

3.3 Sterilization of Materials

All glass wares used were thoroughly washed and rinsed with distilled water and was air dried in a hot air

oven and sterilized at 121°C for 15 mins. The surface of the work bench area was disinfected before carrying

out any experimental work in order to avoid contamination and to ensure an aseptic work condition.

3.4 Sample Collection

Three suya samples were collected from three(3) different vendors in Anyigba, Kogi State. The collected

samples was placed in a sterile plastic container and transported to the microbiology laboratory to preserve

the microbial integrity.

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3.5 Sample Preparation

Suya pieces from each sample were removed and aseptically cut into thin smaller pieces using sterile knife

and mashed in a sterile mortar and pestle. One gram of the mashed suya was weighed and serially diluted

using 1 ml from stock homogenate and 9 ml of distilled water.

3.6 Preparations of Media

The media used were Plate count agar, Nutrient agar, MacConkey agar, Mannitol salt agar and Mueller

hinton agar. They were prepared according to manufacturer’s instructions and incubated at 37°C for 24hours.

3.6.1 Determination of Total Viable count

The spread plate method was employed for the determination of total viable count were 0.1ml of appropriate

dilutions of each sample was plated using the spread plate method on Plate count agar. The plates were

incubated at 37°C for 24 hours.

3.6.2 Determination of Faecal coliform count

To assess the presence of faecal contamination, 0.1 ml of diluted samples (especially 10 ⁻³ and 10 ⁻⁴) as

plated on MacConkey Agar using the spread plate method. Plates were incubated at 37°C for 24 hours, and

the appearance of pink to red colonies indicated lactose-fermenting coliforms such as Escherichia coli or

Klebsiella sp.

3.7 Subculture

Isolates was separately subcultured onto onto MacConkey, and Mannitol salt agar using a sterile wire loops

and incubated at 37°C for 24 hours.

13
3.7.1 Isolation of Bacterial from Suya Sample

MacConkey agar was used for the isolation of Escherichia coli, Mannitol salt agar was used for isolation of

Staphylococcus species, while other bacteria that might be present in the sampled suya were isolated using

nutrient agar. Bacterial isolation was done following the procedure reported by (Asime et. al., 2020).

3.7.2 Identification of Bacterial Isolates

Characterization and identification of the bacterial isolates were achieved by initial morphological

examination of the bacterial colonies on the MacConkey agar, Mannitol salt agar and nutrient agar plates

(macroscopically) for colonial appearance, size, elevation, form, edge, consistency, colour, opacity, and

pigmentation hence results were recorded (Orpin et al., 2018) The following tests were conducted:

3.7.3 Gram Staining

With the use of a sterile wire loop, a loopful of colony of the organism was collected and fixed on a sterile

glass slide and smeared allowed to air dry and then heat fixed. It was flooded with crystal violet and allowed

to stand for 60 seconds then rinsed with water then blot dry. The slide was flooded with iodine and allowed

to stand for 60 seconds and then was rinsed with water. The slide was flooded with decolorizing alcohol and

flushed immediately with distilled water. Finally, it was flooded with safranin and allowed to stand for 60

seconds. It was rinsed and the blot dry. The slide was viewed under the light microscope using ×40 and ×100

oil immersion (Beveridge, 2020).

3.8 Biochemical Tests

3.8.1 Indole Test

Procedure: A culture of the microorganism was inoculated in a test tube containing tryptone broth and

incubated at 37°C for 24 hours, 0.5 ml of Kovac’s reagent was added to the broth culture and observed for

the presence of rings

14
3.8.2 Methyl Red Test

Procedure: Prior to inoculation, the medium was allowed to equilibrate to room temperature. Using

organisms taken from an 18-24 hours pure culture, lightly inoculate the medium and it was incubated

aerobically at 37 degrees C, for 24 hours. Following 24 hours of incubation, aliquot 1 ml of peptone glucose

broth to a clean test tube. Then reincubate the remaining broth for an additional 24 hours. Add 2 to 3 drops of

methyl red indicator to aliquot. Observe for red colour immediately.

3.8.3 Voges- Proskauer Test

Procedure: The test organism was inoculated into a test tube containing Methyl Red-Voges Proskauer broth

and incubated for 37°C for 24 hours. 0.6 ml of Barritt’s reagent A and 0.2 mL of Baritt’s reagent B was

added. The tube was shaken carefully and allowed to stand for 15-30 minutes and observed for color change.

3.8.4 Triple Sugar Iron test: The TSI test differentiates enteric bacteria based on their ability to ferment

glucose, lactose, and sucrose, produce gas, and generate hydrogen sulfide (H₂S). The slant/butt color

changes and black precipitate formation provide information about the organism’s fermentative profile

(Cappuccino and Welsh, 2019)

Procedure:

The TSI agar slant is prepared and inoculated with pure culture of the test organism using a sterile wireloop.

It was incubated at 37o7C for 24 hours.

3.8.5 Catalase test: Test is used to check microorganisms that produce the catalase enzyme. Catalase

enzyme produced by these bacteria will neutralize the hydrogen peroxide and bubbles will be produced that

are indicative of positive test. Mostly, catalase enzyme is produced by obligate aerobes and facultative

anaerobic bacteria. The test was performed by tube or slide method by mixing the colony of bacteria with

few drops of 3% hydrogen peroxide on slide or to the test tube and looking for bubble formation within 10

seconds (Facklam and Elliott, 2015).

15
3.8.6 Citrate Test

Procedure: Simmons citrate agar lightly inoculated on the slant by streaking it to the microbial colony. It

was incubated at 37°C for 24 hours and observed for colour development.

3.9 Antibiotic Culture Sensitivity

100 ml of Muller-Hinton agar was prepared according to the manufacturer instructions, and sterilized by

autoclaving at 121°C for 15 minutes. The agar was cooled to 45-50°C, and poured into sterile petri dishes to

solidify. Using a sterile inoculating loop, bacterial isolates were streaked on the agar surface for even

distribution. Antibiotic discs were then placed on the inoculated agar using sterile forceps, with proper

spacing to prevent inhibition zone overlap. The Petri dishes were incubated at 37°C for 24 hours. After

incubation, the plates were observed for inhibition zones around each antibiotic disc and measured their

diameters using a calibrated ruler. These measurement were compare with standard interpretive charts from

organizations like CLSI or EUCAST, Sensitivity was defined as a zone of inhibition greater or equal to

15mm, while resistance was indicated by a zone lesser than 15 mm.

3.9.1 Data Analysis

Microbial counts were expressed as colony-forming units per milliter (CFU/mL). Descriptive statistics such

as mean, median and standard deviation were used to analyze the microbial load across different samples. A

one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted to compare microbial counts among different

vendors. Statistical significance was determined at p < 0.05.

16
 CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 RESULTS

4.1 Total Viable Count (TVC)

The total viable count reflects the microbial load in each suya sample. The count was obtained by

performing serial dilution and plating on Plate Count Agar and the table is shown in Table 4.1

4.2 Fecal Coliform Count

To assess the level of fecal contamination, samples were cultured on MacConkey Agar. The presence of pink

colonies indicated lactose-fermenting coliforms such as Escherichia coli and Klebsiella sp. Sample A and B

showed high to moderate fecal coliform presence while Sample C showed mild contamination as shown in

Table 4.2

4.3 Colonial Morphology of Bacterial Isolates from Suya sample

Distinct colonies were selected and described based on their physical appearance on culture media. Colonies

were evaluated on Plate count agar, MacConkey agar and Mannitol salt agar for characteristics such as

shape, color margin, elevation and surface texture. Table shown in 4.3

4.4 Biochemical Characterization of Isolates from Suya sample

Each isolate of the bacterial species present in the suya samples underwent a series of biochemical tests

which was used to confirm the identity of the isolates as Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus,

Streptococcus sp and Klebsiella sp. Tables shown in 4.4

4.5 Prevalence of Bacterial Isolates Across Samples

The distribution of the identified bacteria was relatively even across the three suya samples. Escherichia coli

was found in Sample A and Sample C, indicating likely fecal contamination while Staphylococcus aureus

was present in Sample B and C often associated with human skin contamination and Klebsiella sp was

isolated from Sample C and Sample A, suggesting environmental or poor handling sources. Table shown in

4.5

17
Table 4.1 Total viable count of Suya Samples A,B,C.

Samples Colonies counted Dilution 105 CFU CFSS

B 69 6.9 × 105 Borderline

C 44 44 × 105 Borderline

Note: CFU= Colony forming unit; CFSS=Centre for food safety standards (<10 5, satisfactory; 105<106,
borderline; ≥ 106, unsatisfactory)

18
Table 4.2: Fecal Coliform Count of Suya Samples from Vendors in Anyigba
Samples Colonies Count (CFU) Coliform Morphology Fecal Contamination
(MacConkey Agar) Level
A 44 Pink colonies High

B 19 Mucoid, pink Moderate

C 26 Pink colonies Mild

19
Table 4.3: Colonial and Morphological Attributes of the Bacterial Isolates from Suya samples from
Suya Vendors
Samples Colonial Attributes Colonial Morphology

NA MAC MSA
A Large, moist, grayish Pinkish colonies No growth Smooth, moist, round colonies
White colonies With flat elevation

B Opaque,golden yellow No growth Yellow colonies Circular, convex colonies with

C Mucoid,cream-colored Large, pink No growth Raised, sticky colonies with

D Cocci, clusters Pinkish colonies No growth Pinpoint, convex

Note: NA= Nutrient agar, MAC= MAcConkey agar, MSA= Mannitol salt agar

20
Table 4.4. Biochemical Tests of Bacterial isolates from Suya from Suya Vendors

Isolates Gram reaction In Cg Ct Mr Cr Ur Vp Mo Gu Su Suspected organism

A -ve, pink, rod + - + + - - - + + + Escherichia coli

shape

B +ve, cocci in - + + + + - + + + + Staphylococcus aureus

clusters

C -ve, pink, rod - - + + + + + + + + Klebsiella sp.

D +ve, cocci in - - - - - - - - + + Streptococcus sp.

chains

KEY: CT=catalase, CO=coagulase, UR=urease, CR= citrate utilization, MT=motility test, IN=indole,
Ur= Urease, Vp= Voges=proskaeur, Mo= Motility,Gu=vGlucose, Su= Sucrose, MR= methyl red test,
+ve, + = Positive, -ve.- = negative,

21
 Table 4.5 Antibiotics sensitivity pattern of bacterial isolates from suya sample from suya vendors

Isolates RD CTZ S AMX CEP CPX E LEV CN AU

30µg 30µg 30µg 20µg 10µg 10µg 30µg 20µg 10µg 30µg

Esherichia coli 8 19 15 8 19 28 13 17 21 19

Staphylococcus aureus 22 16 17 9 20 26 24 19 23 20

Klebsiella sp. 10 21 12 7 18 25 14 18 20 16

Streptococcus sp. 14 20 13 10 15 19 16 17 19 18

RD= (rifampicin 20), CTZ= (ceftazidime 30) S=(Streptomycin 30) AMX= (amoxil 20), CEP= (ceporex 10)
CPX= (ciprofloxacin 10), E= (erythromycin 30), LEV= (levofloxacin 20) CN= (gentamycin 10) AU=
(augmentin 30)

22
Table 4.6 Prevalence of Bacterial Isolates Across the Three Suya Vendors in Anyigba

Bacterial isolates S1 S2 S3 Total Percentage%

Staphylococcus aureus 3 1 3 7 41%

Escherichia coli 2 2 1 5 29.4%

Streptococcus sp. 1 0 2 3 17.6%

Klebsiella sp. 0 1 1 2 11.8%

CHAPTER FIVE

23
DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Discussion

The total viable count (TVC) of the suya samples analyzed in this study ranged from 4.3 × 10⁵ to 8.5 × 10⁵

CFU/g, with most samples falling within the borderline range based on the Centre for Food Safety Standards

(CFSS) classification. These microbial levels indicate that although the suya samples were not classified as

highly unsatisfactory, they were still not entirely safe for consumption, as microbial loads exceeding 10⁵

CFU/g are considered a potential health risk (ICMSF, 2002). The elevated bacterial loads observed may be

attributed to poor hygiene during preparation, exposure to the open environment, and lack of temperature

control, especially since most suya vendors do not use refrigeration or sealed packaging. These findings align

with similar reports by Nkanga and Uraih (2021), who observed comparable TVC ranges in street-vended

suya, emphasizing the need for better hygiene enforcement.

The presence of fecal coliforms, particularly Escherichia coli and Klebsiella sp., in all suya samples indicates

fecal contamination, likely introduced during handling, washing, or environmental exposure. High colony

counts on MacConkey agar and the presence of pink mucoid colonies confirmed the presence of lactose-

fermenting coliforms. Sample A showed the highest fecal coliform count, suggesting severe contamination,

possibly due to the use of contaminated water or improper handwashing. These results are consistent with

findings by Adebayo and Lawal (2022), who reported that over 70% of suya samples tested in Lagos

contained fecal indicators, further highlighting the public health risk posed by street-vended meat products

when proper hygiene protocols are not followed.

The bacterial isolates identified from the suya samples included Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus,

Klebsiella sp., and Streptococcus sp. These organisms are of clinical and public health concern. E. coli is an

indicator of fecal contamination and a potential carrier of enteric pathogens, while Staphylococcus aureus

contamination is usually linked to improper handling by vendors, as it commonly resides on human skin and

nasal passages (Prescott et al., 2002). Klebsiella sp. And Streptococcus spp. Are opportunistic pathogens

24
often introduced through environmental contamination or unclean utensils. Similar isolates have been

reported by Odu and Imaku (2023) in their study of street foods in Port Harcourt. The identification of these

organisms confirms that multiple routes of contamination exist, underscoring the urgent need for

comprehensive public health intervention to mitigate foodborne disease risks.

5.2 Conclusion

The findings of this study clearly indicate that ready-to-eat suya sold by vendors in Anyigba is

microbiologically contaminated, harboring bacteria of public health importance such as Escherichia coli,

Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella spp., and Streptococcus sp. These organisms are known indicators of fecal

contamination, poor hygiene, and environmental exposure, which are often associated with improper

handling, unsanitary utensils, unhygienic water sources, and lack of food safety awareness among street

vendors (Odu and Imaku, 2023; Adebayo and Lawal, 2022). The findings suggest that poor hygiene,

contaminated handling practices, and environmental exposure are key contributors to this contamination. The

presence of these organisms, especially with antimicrobial resistance, poses a serious public health risk,

particularly to consumers with weakened immunity

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5.3 Recommendations

Based on the findings it is recommended that waste disposal systems should be made available at vending

locations as these measures will reduce environmental contamination and support cleaner preparation

methods. It is also recommended that consumers should be sensitized on the dangers of consuming visibly

exposed or poorly handled suya, encouraged to reheat suya before consumption and also to patronize only

clean and reputable vendors.

26
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APPENDICES

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