MODULE 4 EXPLORE PRINCIPLES OF PLANT PRODUCTION.

LO 4.1 PLANT REPRODUCTION

POLLINATION IN PLANTS
The transfer of pollen grains from anther to the stigma of a flower. Pollination leads to
fertilization, seed formation, and fruit production.

Types of Pollination
SELF POLLINATION CROSS POLLINATION
Definition Pollen is transferred from the anther to Pollen is transferred from the anther
the stigma of the same flower or of one flower to the stigma of a flower
another flower on the same plant. on a different plant of the same
species.
Advantages Ensures reproduction even when Promotes genetic diversity;
pollinators are absent; Maintains Enhances adaptability and
genetic stability. survival.
Disadvantages Limits genetic diversity. Relies on external agents like wind,
water, or animals.
Examples Beans, rice, peas. Maize, Apples, sunflowers,

AGENTS OF MECHANISMS TO SIGNIFICANCE THREATS TO PROMOTING

POLLINATION PROMOTE OF POLLINATION POLLINATION
POLLINATION POLLINATION

Biotic Agents (Living): - Flower Structure Reproduction: Habitat Plant diverse and
Insects: Bees, butterflies, and Colour: Bright Ensures seed and destruction and native flowering
beetles, and moths; They petals and distinct fruit formation. fragmentation. species to attract
are attracted by nectar, shapes attract Pesticide use. pollinators.
bright colours, or specific pollinators. Biodiversity: Climate change Reduce pesticide
scents. . Promotes genetic affecting the use and adopt
- Birds: Hummingbirds Nectar Guides: variation in plant timing of integrated pest
and sunbirds Patterns visible to populations. flowering and management (IPM).
Mammals: Bats and small pollinators guide pollinator Provide habitats
rodents. them to the nectar Agriculture: activity. like bee hotels or
source, ensuring Many crops (e.g.

1
Abiotic Agents (Non- contact with the apples, and Decline in nesting sites for
Living): anther and stigma. tomatoes) rely on pollinator native pollinators.
- Wind: Pollen is pollinators for populations like
lightweight and often Timing: Flowers high yields. bees due to
produced in large often bloom in diseases and loss
quantities. synchrony with the Ecosystem of forage plants.
Examples: maize, wheat, activity of their Services-
and grasses. pollinators; Rewards: Supports food
- Water: Common in Flowers offer nectar webs and
aquatic plants, where or edible pollen to ecological
pollen is adapted to float. attract pollinators. balance.
Examples: water lily.

THE PROCESS OF FERTILIZATION IN PLANTS

 The result of successful pollination is fertilization

 Fertilization is the fusion of male and female gametes in the embryo sac to form a
zygote.

The process can be divided into several stages:

1. Pollination
Fertilization begins with the transfer of pollen grains from the male anther to the female
stigma; The pollen grain adheres to the stigma, aided by compatible surface proteins and
sticky secretions.
2. Germination of the Pollen Grain
Once on the stigma, the pollen grain absorbs nutrients and water, causing it to germinate; The
pollen tube begins to grow from the pollen grain extending down the style toward the ovary.
3. Growth of the Pollen Tube
The pollen tube grows through the tissues of the style by digesting its way with the help of
enzymes; Inside the pollen tube are two male gametes (sperm cells) and the tube nucleus that
guides the tube's growth; The tube grows toward the ovule, guided by chemical signals
(chemotropism) released by the ovule.
4. Entry into the Ovule
The ovule is protected by integuments, with a small opening called the micropyle; The
pollen tube enters the ovule through the micropyle and releases its contents into the embryo
sac; Pollen tube nucleus dies.
5. Double Fertilization (Unique to Angiosperms)
Fusion with the Egg Cell: - One male gamete fuses with the egg cell to form a diploid
zygote (2n), which will develop into the embryo.
Fusion with the Central Cell: -The other male gamete fuses with the two haploid nuclei of
the central cell, forming a triploid primary endosperm nucleus (3n), which will develop
into the endosperm. The endosperm provides nourishment to the developing embryo; This is
called double fertilization and is unique to flowering plants (angiosperms).
6. Post-Fertilization Events
 Zygote Development: -The zygote divides and develops into the embryo.

2
  Endosperm Formation: -The triploid endosperm nucleus divides to form the
endosperm, which acts as a food reserve.
 Seed Formation: - The ovule develops into a seed, containing the embryo,
endosperm, and seed coat.
 Fruit Formation: - The ovary develops into a fruit, protecting the seeds and aiding in
their dispersal.
Figure 4.2 illustrate fertilization in a plant

Figure 4.2

PLANT PROPAGATION

The process of creating new plants from a parent plant.

It can be achieved through sexual or asexual (vegetative) methods.

METHODS OF PROPAGATION IN PLANT PROPAGATION

1. Sexual Propagation.

This is the reproduction that involves the fusion of male and female
gametes. In plants pollen grains carry the male gametes while female
gametes (ova) are contained in the ovules.
2. Asexual Propagation

3
 This is the production of new organisms using vegetative parts of a plant.
PARTS OF PLANTS USED FOR ASEXUAL PROPAGATION
 Stem/root/leaf cuttings; vegetative buds; twig/ shoot as in grafting;
plant cells/tissues/organs (micro-propagation); crown
divisions/splits/storage organs such as tubers, suckers, rhizomes,
bulbs and corms.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF PLANT PROPAGATION

METHODS

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

Disadvantages Advantages
 New plants are different from their parents  All new plants are identical to their parent
due to cross- fertilization. They can inherit making it possible to increase the numbers of
the worst features of both parents. desirable cultivars.
 It takes a long time to obtain a mature plant  Mature plants can be obtained more quickly.
from a seed.  A tuber or cutting is big and contains enough
 Seeds are small, and have little food stored food reserves to sustain the new developing
in them. Young plants may easily die plant.
especially when conditions are  Can be used for plants that are difficult
unfavourable e.g. during drought. to propagate by seeds or have low seed
 Seed germination can be slow, and seeds germination rates.
may not always germinate uniformly.
Advantages Disadvantages
 Promotes genetic diversity, leading to  No variation is possible, so no improvement
stronger and more adaptable plants. is obtained.
 Large numbers of plants can be obtained  As all plants are identical to the parent plant,
from seeds. they can all be affected by the same diseases.
 Seeds can be easily stored and transported.  It is difficult to produce large numbers of
plants quickly.
 Can lead to the accumulation of mutations
over generations.
 Requires more careful management of plant
health and genetics.

METHODS OF ASEXUAL PROPAGATION

a. Cuttings: - cuttings are plant pieces cut from a parent plant and rooted to form new
plants.

4
Stems/leaves/roots are cut and planted. Before planting a cutting, the growth media should be
sterilized, rooting powder can be used. The cutting can be placed in soil/water/growth media.

b. Layering: This is when a branch is allowed to develop roots while still attached to the
mother plant, after root development the branch is cut and planted as an individual
plant.

b (i ) Ground layering

The branch is bend into the ground; pegged/supported; watered until roots grow; the
rooted branch is cut; planted as a separate plant; keep the growth media moist.

b (ii) Air layering

In air layering, a bark is ringed/tongued around on the branch; the ringed /tongued part is
tied /covered with plastic/polythene bag containing wet soil/growing medium; the rooted
branch is cut; planted as separate plant.

5
 c. Grafting: - this the joining of the scion and root stock to form a new plant

Identify the scion and the rootstock; select a healthy rootstock and scion.; cut both parts to
match in size and shape. make a V shape/slant cut on both scion and rootstock; scion and
rootstock are tied/united; tie the union with a grafting tape; cover with a protective wax.

d. Budding: - is a grafting method in which the scion as a single bud is joined to a root
stock to raise a new plant.

A bud is removed from a tree; a cut made on the rootstock/stock plant; the bud is inserted in
the cut on the rootstock/stock plant; the union is tied with a budding tape; after the bud has
developed the top part of the root stock is cut slanting away from the bud

6
 e. Use of Suckers: - suckers are shoots that emerge from the base of a plant, often from
underground roots.

Identify a healthy sucker near the parent plant; Carefully separate it from the main plant;
Replant it in a suitable location. Examples: -Banana, pineapple, bamboo, plantain.

LO 4.2 PLANT GROWTH

SEED GERMINATION

Seed germination is the process by which a seed develops into a new plant under favourable
environmental conditions.
IMPORTANCE OF SEED GERMINATION
Ensures plant reproduction and biodiversity; Plays an important role in agriculture and food
production; Helps in forest regeneration and ecological balance.
STAGES OF SEED GERMINATION
1. imbibition (Water Absorption)
The seed absorbs water through its seed coat (testa), causing it to swell; Water activates
enzymes that break down stored food in the endosperm or cotyledons; The seed coat softens,
allowing the embryo to expand.
2. Activation of Metabolism
Water and oxygen trigger metabolic processes; Enzymes like amylase convert stored starch
into sugars, providing energy for growth; The embryo starts cellular respiration.
3. Radicle Emergence (Root Growth)
The radicle (embryonic root) is the first structure to emerge; It anchors the seedling into the
soil and absorbs more water and nutrients.
4. Plumule Emergence (Shoot Growth)
The plumule (embryonic shoot) grows upward toward light; The hypocotyl (stem portion
below cotyledons) elongates, lifting the cotyledons above the soil (epigeal germination) or
keeping the cotyledons below the soil (hypogeal germination).
5. Seedling Establishment
The cotyledons or endosperm provide initial nutrients until leaves develop; The young plant
starts photosynthesis, producing its own food; The true leaves appear, marking the transition
from a seedling to an independent plant.
TYPES OF GERMINATION
 Epigeal Germination:

7
The cotyledons are pushed above the soil (e.g., beans).

 Hypogeal Germination:
The cotyledons remain below the soil, and the plumule emerges (e.g., maize, pea)

CONDITIONS REQUIRED FOR SEED GERMINATION

1. Water (Moisture)
Seeds absorb water through imbibition, which softens the seed coat; Water activates enzymes
that break down stored food into energy for growth; Maintains turgor pressure, essential for
cell expansion.
Too little water = No germination (seed remains dormant). Too much water = Lack of
oxygen, leading to seed rot.
2. Oxygen
Essential for aerobic respiration; Oxygen is needed for cell division and elongation in the
growing seedling; Waterlogged or compacted soil prevents oxygen diffusion, inhibiting
germination.
3. Temperature
Influences enzyme activity, cell division, and seed metabolism; Most seeds germinate
between 15°C and 30°C.

8
 Too cold = Enzyme activity slows down, delaying or stopping germination.
Too hot = Can denature enzymes or dry out the seed.
4. Light or Darkness
Some seeds require light for germination while others need darkness; Light-sensitive seeds
(e.g., lettuce) require exposure to red light to break dormancy; Others (e.g., onion, maize)
prefer dark conditions to germinate effectively; Incorrect light conditions may delay or
prevent germination.
5. Viable Seed (Healthy Embryo)
A viable seed contains a living embryo capable of growth; Seeds that are too old or damaged
may lose viability; Seed dormancy can be broken by stratification (cold exposure),
scarification (seed coat scratching), or chemical treatments.
6. Proper medium:
Seeds must be planted in a suitable medium that can retain moisture and allow for proper root
development. This could be soil, growing media, or a hydroponic setup.

CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR PLANT GROWTH

CONDITION IMPORTANCE EFFECT OF

DEFICIENCY
Water Essential for photosynthesis, nutrient transport, Too little water =
and cell expansion. Wilting, stunted growth,
Maintains turgor pressure, keeping the plant and death.
upright. Too much water = Root
Helps in cooling the plant through transpiration. rot and reduced oxygen
availability
Light The primary energy source for photosynthesis Too little light = Weak,
(production of food). spindly growth
Regulates plant growth cycles (flowering, (etiolation).
fruiting, seed germination). Too much light =
Affects leaf shape, size, and colour. Sunburn or dehydration
Suitable Influences enzyme activity, cell division, and Too cold = Slow growth
Temperature photosynthesis. or frost damage.
Optimal range varies: Too hot = Wilting, stress,
Cool-season crops (e.g., lettuce, cabbage) grow and reduced productivity
best at 10–20°C.
Warm-season crops (e.g., tomatoes, maize)
prefer 20–30°C.
Nutrients Plants need macronutrients and micronutrients Nutrient deficiency =
for proper growth: Stunted growth,
✅ Macronutrients: yellowing leaves, poor
Nitrogen (N): Leaf and stem growth. yields.
Phosphorus (P): Root development and Excess nutrients =
flowering. Toxicity, weak roots, and
Potassium (K): Disease resistance and fruit poor plant health
formation.
✅ Micronutrients:
Iron (Fe), Zinc (Zn), Magnesium (Mg), etc.
Absence of Plants must be free from pests, diseases, and Presence of harmful

9
Harmful weeds. factors = Reduced
Factors Toxic chemicals, pollutants, or excessive growth, disease spread,
fertilizers should be avoided. and lower yield.
Weeds compete for nutrients and water,
affecting plant health.
Air (Oxygen Oxygen (O₂): Required for respiration (energy Poor air quality = Weak
& Carbon production). growth, yellowing, and
Dioxide Carbon dioxide (CO₂): Essential for diseases
photosynthesis.
Good air circulation prevents fungal diseases
and strengthens plant structure.

PHOTOSYNTHESIS

DEFINITION:

Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants, algae, and some bacteria convert
light energy into chemical energy, producing glucose (food) and oxygen as by-products. It
occurs in the chloroplasts of plant cells, primarily in the leaves.
IMPORTANCE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Produces oxygen, which supports life on Earth; Forms the basis of the food chain by
providing energy to plants and herbivores; Converts solar energy into chemical energy stored
in plants; Helps maintain atmospheric CO₂ balance, reducing global warming.
GENERAL EQUATION OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS

PROCESS OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
During the process of photosynthesis, carbon dioxide enters through the stomata;
water is absorbed by the root hairs from the soil and is carried to the leaves through
the xylem vessels; Chlorophyll absorbs the light energy from the sun to split water
molecules into hydrogen and oxygen; The hydrogen from water molecules and
carbon dioxide absorbed from the air are combined to produce glucose; oxygen is
released into the atmosphere through the leaves.
STAGES OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
 Light-dependent reaction or light reaction
 Light independent reaction or dark reaction

10
 1. LIGHT-DEPENDENT REACTIONS (LIGHT REACTION)
Carried out only during the day in the presence of sunlight; Takes place in the thylakoid
membranes (membrane bound sacs inside the stroma) of the chloroplast; Requires sunlight to
activate chlorophyll; Water molecules split into hydrogen and oxygen (Photolysis); Oxygen
(O₂) is released into the atmosphere; ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) and NADPH
(Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate Hydrogen) (energy carriers) are produced.
2. LIGHT-INDEPENDENT REACTIONS (CALVIN CYCLE/DARK REACTION)
Dark reaction is also called carbon-fixing reaction; Takes place in the stroma (fluid-filled
space in the chloroplast) of the chloroplast; Does not require light but uses ATP and NADPH
from the light reaction; Carbon dioxide (CO₂) is converted into glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆).

RESPIRATION
The process where stored food (mainly glucose) is broken down to release energy in the form
of ATP (Adenosine triphosphate). This energy is used for growth, repair, and other metabolic
activities; respiration occurs continuously day and nigh in all living plant cells.
The Process of Respiration in Plants.
Plants take in oxygen through stomata and root hairs; glucose is broken down through a
series of chemical reactions (including glycolysis, the Krebs cycle); energy is released in
the form of ATP, which fuels various cellular activities; carbon dioxide and water are
produced as byproducts and released back into the atmosphere (through stomata) and soil.
Types of Respiration in Plants
1. Aerobic Respiration (With Oxygen)
The most common type of respiration in plants; requires oxygen (O₂) and produces a high
amount of ATP (energy); occurs mainly in the mitochondria; produces carbon dioxide (CO₂)
and water (H₂O) as byproducts.
Equation:
Glucose + Oxygen → Carbon Dioxide + Water + Energy (ATP)
2. Anaerobic Respiration (Without Oxygen)
Occurs when oxygen supply is low or absent (e.g., waterlogged soils); produces less energy;
occurs in the cytoplasm instead of mitochondria; produces ethanol and carbon dioxide as
byproducts in plants.

Equation:

11
Glucose → Ethanol + Carbon Dioxide + Energy (ATP)
Anaerobic respiration in plants is used in industries like alcohol and bread production
(fermentation by yeast).
Importance of Respiration in Plants
Provides ATP for plant growth, nutrient uptake, and transport; releases carbon dioxide (CO₂)
for photosynthesis; removes waste products like CO₂ and ethanol (in anaerobic respiration);
Maintains cellular activities even in the absence of sunlight.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PHOTOSYNTHESIS AND RESPIRATION

TRANSLOCATION

Translocation is the process by which organic substances (mainly sugars, amino acids, and
hormones) are transported from the leaves (where they are produced during photosynthesis)
to other parts of the plant, such as roots, stems, and developing fruits. This process occurs
through the phloem tissue and is essential for plant growth and survival.
Translocation follows the Source-to-Sink Model, where:
 Source = The part of the plant that produces sugars (e.g., leaves).
 Sink = The part that consumes or stores sugars (e.g., roots, fruits, flowers, storage
organs).
The transport of food happens in both upward and downward directions to ensure that
different parts of the plant receive the nutrients they need.
Process of Translocation (Pressure Flow Hypothesis)
The Pressure Flow Hypothesis explains how sugars move in the phloem through active
transport and osmosis:
Step 1: Loading of Sucrose at the Source (Leaves)
Photosynthesis in leaves produces glucose, which is converted into sucrose; sucrose is
actively transported into phloem sieve tubes using companion cells; this increases the solute
concentration inside the phloem, drawing in water from the xylem by osmosis; the increased
water creates turgor pressure, pushing the sugar solution through the phloem.
Step 2: Movement of Sugars Through the Phloem

12
The sugar solution (phloem sap) moves from high pressure (source) to low pressure (sink);
this movement is called mass flow, which helps transport sugars to the required parts of the
plant.

Step 3: Unloading of Sucrose at the Sink (Roots, Fruits, Storage Organs)

Sucrose is actively transported out of the phloem into sink cells; water transported out of the
phloem by osmosis, reducing pressure in the sink area; the sucrose is either used for energy
(respiration) or stored as starch in roots, seeds, or tubers.
Step 4: Water Returns to the Xylem
The excess water from the phloem returns to the xylem to be recycled back to the leaves,
maintaining water balance in the plant.

TRANSPIRATION IN PLANTS
Transpiration is the process by which plants lose water vapor from their aerial parts, mainly
through the stomata in the leaves. This process helps in cooling the plant, transporting
minerals, and maintaining water balance.
Process of Transpiration
Transpiration occurs in three main steps:
Step 1: Absorption of Water by Roots
Root hairs absorb water from the soil through osmosis (water moves from high water
potential to low water); water moves through root cortex cells into the xylem vessels.
Step 2: Water Transport Through Xylem
Water moves upward through the xylem by:
Capillary action (water rising in narrow tubes); cohesion (water molecules stick together);
adhesion (water sticks to xylem walls); root pressure (pushes water up).
Step 3: Evaporation from Leaf Surface
Water reaches mesophyll cells in leaves; sunlight heats the leaf, causing water to evaporate
from the cell walls; the vapor exits through stomata into the atmosphere.

FOOD STORAGE IN PLANTS

Food storage in plants refers to the accumulation of excess nutrients in specialized plant
tissues to be used later for growth, seed germination, reproduction, flowering and survival.
Plants store food mainly in the form of starch, sugars, fats, and proteins.
FOOD STORAGE ORGAN EXAMPLE OF CROPS
Bulb Onion, garlic
Stem tuber Irish potato
Root tuber Sweet potato, cassava
Inflorescence/flower Broccoli, cauliflower
Leaves Cabbage, spinach
Rhizomes Ginger
Seeds Peas, beans
Fruits Tomato, green pepper, okra, cucumber
Stem Sugarcane, sweet reed
corm cocoyam

13
Forms of Stored Food in Plants
Storage Form Example Plants Function
Starch Potatoes, Wheat, Rice Energy storage
Sugars Sugarcane, Fruits Quick energy source
Fats & Oils Sunflower, Coconut Long-term energy storage
Proteins Beans, Peas Growth and development

LO 4.3 CROP PESTS

A pest is any organism (insect, weed, rodent, fungus, bacteria, virus) that harms crop by
feeding, competing for nutrients, or spreading diseases, significantly reducing yield, quality,
and productivity.
EFFECTS OF PESTS ON CROPS:
 Reduced Yield: Pests like caterpillars and aphids lower crop production by consuming
plant parts.
 Poor Quality: Pests such as fruit flies damage produce, affecting marketability.
 Disease Transmission: Pests like whiteflies spread harmful viruses and bacteria.
 Weakened Plants: Root-feeding pests like nematodes harm roots, impairing water and
nutrient uptake.
 Economic Losses: Infestations can cause significant financial losses from crop failure
and pest control expenses.

CLASSIFICATION OF PESTS AFFECTING PLANTS

Pests affecting plants can be broadly categorized based on their nature and mode of damage.
1. Insect Pests
Insects cause damage by feeding on plant parts or transmitting diseases.
 Biting and chewing pests – Feed on leaves, stems, roots, and fruits.
o Examples: Caterpillars, Grasshoppers, Beetles.
 Piercing and sucking pests – Pierce plant tissues and suck sap, weakening plants.
o Examples: Aphids, Whiteflies, Thrips.
 Boring pests– Tunnel into stems, fruits, and roots.
o Examples: Stem Borers, Fruit Borers, Weevils.
2. Weeds
Weeds are unwanted plants that compete with crops for nutrients, water, and sunlight.
 Broadleaf Weeds – Have wide leaves and grow aggressively.
o Examples: Pigweed, Dandelion.
 Narrowleaf Weeds – Resemble grasses and grow rapidly.
o Examples: Crabgrass, Bermuda Grass.
 Parasitic Weeds – Attach to host plants and extract nutrients.
o Examples: Striga (Witchweed)

3. Rodents
Rodents feed on seeds, roots, stems, and stored crops, causing significant losses.
 Examples: Rats, Mice, Ground Squirrels.

14
4. Birds
Birds peck at grains, fruits, and seedlings, reducing crop yields.
 Examples: Crows, Sparrows, Parrots, Pigeons.
5. Pathogens (Microbial Pests)
Pathogens cause plant diseases, reducing growth and productivity.
 Fungal Pathogens – Cause rots, rusts, and mildews.
o Examples: Powdery Mildew, Late Blight, Rusts.
 Bacterial Pathogens – Lead to wilts, leaf spots, and soft rots.
o Examples: Bacterial Wilt, Fire Blight.
 Viral Pathogens – Stunt growth and deform leaves and fruits.
o Examples: Mosaic Viruses, Yellow Leaf Curl Virus.
6. Mammals
Large herbivores that feed on crops, causing destruction.
Examples: Deer, Wild Boars, Monkeys, Rabbits.

IDENTIFICATION OF WEEDS
Weeds can be identified based on:-

1. LIFE CYCLE: annuals; biennials and perennials: -Annuals complete their life-cycle
in one year or less, biennials have a two year cycle and perennials live for more than
two years.
2. MORPHOLOGY: narrowleaf/monocotyledons (sedges and grasses) and broadleaf or
woody and herbaceous (dicotyledons).

3. MEANS OF DISPERSAL: Wind:- the seeds are very light and shaped in a way that
is easier for them to be blown by wind; Animal:- fruits or individual seeds are
covered in hooks or spines which attach the seed to the animal’s fur or feathers, the
seeds are then carried a sufficient distance from the parent plant and eventually fall
off/rubbed off by the animal; Water:- seeds float in water and carried away from the
parent plant.

IDENTIFICATION OF COMMON WEEDS ACCORDING TO MORPHOLOGY

Broadleaf Weeds (Dicots): - Have broad leaves with net-like veins

 Black-jack (Bidens pilosa) – A common weed with sticky seeds that attach to clothing
and animal fur.
 Datura (Datura stramonium) – Also known as Jimsonweed, it is toxic to humans and
livestock.
 Devil’s thorn (Tribulus terrestris) – Has spiny fruits that injure animals and people.
 Wild mustard (Sisymbrium spp.) – Common in disturbed areas and competes with
crops.
 Mexican poppy (Argemone mexicana) – A spiny weed toxic to livestock.
2. Narrowleaf/Grass Weeds (Monocots) :- Have narrow leaves and parallel veins.

15
  Couch grass (Cynodon dactylon) – A persistent weed with underground rhizomes.
 Goosegrass (Eleusine indica) – Found in compacted soils, common in roadsides and
fields.
 Sorghum grass (Sorghum halepense) – Also called Johnson grass, it spreads
aggressively through rhizomes.
 Lovegrass (Eragrostis spp.) – Competes with native grasses and invades rangelands.
 Signal grass (Brachiaria spp.) – A problematic weed in grazing lands.
3. Sedge Weeds
 Nutgrass (Cyperus rotundus) – One of the world’s worst weeds due to its ability to
regrow from tubers.
 Yellow nutsedge (Cyperus esculentus) – Similar to nutgrass, it spreads quickly in
fields and gardens.

IDENTIFICATION OF INSECT PESTS ACCORDING TO MODE OF

FEEDING
Pests are identified according to the way they feed.
PEST GROUP MODE OF FEEDING TYPICAL EXAMPLES
Biting and Have specially adapted mouthparts with which they Grasshoppers, leaf miners,
chewing pests bite and chew plant tissues termites, beetles, locusts
Piercing and Have mouthparts that are adapted into a needle-like Aphids, mealy bug, scale
sucking pests stylet, with which they pierce plant tissue and suck insect
plant sap
Boring pests Have mouthparts which are specialized for biting Stalk borer, weevil,
and chewing, but they enter the plant tissue (e.g. American bollworm
stem or fruit) and remain inside the plant tissue.

MOUTH PARTS OF CROP PESTS

16
LIFE CYCLE OF A BORING PEST (MAIZE STALKBORER)

Maize stalk borer undergoes complete lifecycle where young ones are completely different
from the adult. Stalk borer has a four-stage life cycle consisting of egg, larva, pupa and adult.

Female moth lays eggs in columns on a leaf or under the leaf sheath; after about 10 days the
egg hatches into larva, a caterpillar; caterpillar crawls up the plant into the funnel and starts
feeding on the folded leaves; half- grown caterpillar bores down the funnel into the stalk
centre; it feeds on the stem tissue until it is fully grown this stage lasts for about 35 days;
mature caterpillar forms a pupa in the tunnel of the stem- this stage lasts for about 10 days;
adult moth emerges through the hole and mating occurs 2 to 3 days after the emergence;
female moth starts laying eggs thus starting another cycle.

LIFE CYCLE OF A BITING AND CHEWING PEST (LOCUST):

Locust undergoes an incomplete lifecycle where the young ones look like the adults. It has a
three- stage lifecycle consisting of egg, nymph and adult
Stages 1-5 shows developmental stages of the nymph during moulting.

Female lays eggs in protective pods underground; egg hatches into nymph after 30 days;
Nymph feeds and grows into an adult after 4 to 5 moults (developmental stages); nymph

17
stage lasts for 40 days; adult feeds and reaches sexual maturity after 45 days; then mating
occurs; female starts laying eggs, thus starting another cycle.

LIFE CYCLE OF A PIERCING AND SUCKING PEST (APHIDS):

Aphids undergo an incomplete lifecycle where the young ones look like the adults. It has
a three- stage lifecycle consisting of egg, nymph and adult but can reproduce both
sexually and asexually.

Asexual

Egg stage: When conditions are favorable the female lays large number of eggs that hatch
into nymphs inside the body without being fertilized. This method of reproduction is
referred to as parthenogenesis.

Nymph stage: Nymphs are born alive; then moult several times and reach adult stage after
7 days; nymphs feed on plant sap.

Adult stage: wingless adults remain on the same plant during their whole life and
produce nymphs. But when they are overcrowded, they develop wings and fly to other
plants.

Sexual mode

Male aphids are produced which then mate with winged females. Females lay eggs in
protective shells which hatch when conditions are favorable.

METHODS OF CONTROLLING INSECT PESTS

Effective pest management requires a combination of different control methods. Here are the
main approaches:
1. Cultural Control
This involves farming practices that reduce pest populations.
 Crop Rotation – Changing crops each season to break pest life cycles.
 Intercropping – Growing different crops together to repel pests.
 Proper Spacing – Reduces pest spread and improves airflow.
 Timely Planting & Harvesting – Avoids peak pest seasons.
 Sanitation – Removing infested plant debris to prevent pest buildup.
2. Mechanical Control
Uses physical methods to remove or kill pests.
 Handpicking – Removing large pests like caterpillars manually.
 Traps & Barriers – Sticky traps, light traps, and pheromone traps attract and capture
pests.
 Mulching – Prevents soil-dwelling insects from emerging.
 Pruning & Weeding – Eliminates pest breeding sites.
3. Chemical Control
Involves the use of pesticides to kill or repel insects.

18
  Contact Insecticides – Kill pests upon direct contact.
o Example: Pyrethroids.
 Systemic Insecticides – Absorbed by plants and ingested by pests.
o Example: Neonicotinoids.
 Fumigants – Used to control stored grain pests.
o Example: Phosphine gas.
 Botanical Insecticides – Derived from plants (e.g., Neem oil, Pyrethrum).
Caution: Overuse of pesticides can cause resistance, environmental harm, and toxicity risks.
4. Biological Control
Uses natural enemies of pests to suppress their populations.
 Predators – Ladybugs (control aphids), Spiders (feed on insects).
 Parasitoids – Parasitic wasps that lay eggs in pest larvae.
 Pathogens – Fungal (Beauveria bassiana), Bacterial (Bacillus thuringiensis – Bt), and
Viral bio-pesticides.
5. Biotechnical Control
Involves advanced scientific techniques to manage pests.
 Sterile Insect Technique (SIT) – Releasing sterilized males to reduce reproduction
(e.g., Sterile Tsetse flies).
 Genetically Modified Crops (GMOs) – Bt crops produce proteins toxic to pests but
safe for humans.
 Pheromone Disruption – Uses synthetic pheromones to confuse pests and prevent
mating.
6. Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
A sustainable approach that combines multiple control methods to minimize pest damage
while reducing environmental impact.
 Monitor & Identify Pests – Use traps, scouting, and predictive models.
 Set Economic Thresholds – Act only when pest populations exceed damage limits.
 Use a Combination of Control Methods – Preferably cultural, biological, and
mechanical before considering chemicals.
 Regular Evaluation & Adjustments – Adapt based on effectiveness.
APPROPRIATE USE OF TOOLS, EQUIPMENT, MACHINERY, AND
MATERIALS IN PEST CONTROL
Tools and Equipment for Pest Control
a) Hand Tools
 Pruning Shears & Knives – Used for removing infested plant parts.
 Hand Sprayers – Used for small-scale pesticide application.
 Traps (Sticky, Light, Pheromone) – For mechanical and biotechnical control of
insects.
Safety Tips:
Wear gloves to avoid direct contact with pests or chemicals; Clean tools after use to prevent
disease spread.
b) Spraying Equipment
 Knapsack Sprayer – Used for applying pesticides on small farms.
 Boom Sprayer – Covers large areas efficiently.
 Fogging Machine – Used for vector control in large fields.
Safety Tips:

19
Calibrate sprayers properly to avoid overuse; Use appropriate nozzles to minimize chemical
drift; Maintain and clean sprayers after use.
c) Machinery for Pest Control
 Tractor-Mounted Sprayers – Used for large-scale farming.
 Drones – For precision pesticide application.
 Ploughing Machines – Help disrupt pest breeding cycles.
Safety Tips:
Train operators on proper handling and calibration; Avoid spraying against the wind to
prevent drift; Store machinery properly after use.
SAFE HANDLING OF PESTICIDES AND BIOLOGICAL CONTROL
AGENTS
Pesticides and biological control agents must be used responsibly to protect human health and
the environment.
a) Chemical Pesticides
Safe Use Guidelines:
Read and follow label instructions on dosage and application methods; Wear personal
protective equipment (PPE) (gloves, masks, goggles); store chemicals in labelled, locked
containers, away from food and water sources; dispose of empty containers properly, never
reuse them for food storage.
Avoid:
Spraying during strong winds or before rain (to prevent runoff); Overuse, which can lead to
pest resistance and environmental contamination.
b) Biological Control Agents
Safe Use Guidelines:
Release beneficial insects at the correct time and location; avoid using broad-spectrum
pesticides that can kill natural predators; store biological agents under recommended
conditions (e.g., refrigeration for live organisms).
ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS WHEN CONTROLLING
PESTS.
Minimizing Pollution & Protecting Non-Target Organisms
Use biodegradable pesticides and organic methods where possible; avoid contaminating
water bodies with chemical runoff; Implement buffer zones around sensitive areas (e.g.,
beekeeping zones).
Health and Safety Considerations WHEN CONTROLLING
PESTS.
Conduct regular medical check-ups for workers handling pesticides; have an emergency plan
in case of chemical exposure (first aid, antidotes); train workers on safe pesticide handling
and application techniques.

LO 4.4 CROP DISEASES

A disease is any abnormal condition that negatively affects a plant’s growth, structure, or
function, caused by pathogens (such as fungi, bacteria, viruses, and nematodes) or

20
 environmental factors/ any harmful deviation from normal functioning of physiological
processes.
EFFECTS OF PLANT DISEASES ON CROPS
1. Reduced growth and yield loss: - Diseases interfere with photosynthesis, nutrient uptake,
and water transport, leading to stunted growth and lower productivity; Example: Rust
diseases (e.g., wheat rust) weaken plants by damaging leaves, reducing grain yield.
2. Poor crop quality: - Some diseases cause blemishes, rotting, or deformities, making
produce unsellable or unfit for consumption; Example: Late blight of potato leads to
blackened, rotten tubers, affecting marketability.
3. Increased susceptibility to pests: - Weakened plants are more prone to insect attacks and
secondary infections, example: Fusarium wilt damages roots, making crops vulnerable to
root-feeding insects.
4. Death of plants: - Severe infections can cause wilting, defoliation, or total plant collapse;
Example: Banana Panama disease kills entire banana plants, threatening global production.
5. Contamination of harvested produce: - Some pathogens produce toxins harmful to humans
and animals (e.g., aflatoxins from Aspergillus fungi in maize and peanuts).
6. Economic losses: - Farmers suffer from reduced income due to lower yields, high disease
management costs, and market rejection of infected produce.
7. Impact on soil health: - Certain diseases persist in the soil, making it unsuitable for
growing the same crop for years (e.g., clubroot in brassicas).
IDENTIFICATION OF PLANT DISEASES
Diseas Causati examples
e ve
group agent
Bacterial Bacteria Bacterial wilt of tomatoes, and potatoes, bacterial blight of cotton
and soya bean, soft rot of cabbage
fungal Fungi Damping –off of seedlings, downy mildew of peas, powdery mildew
of beans, sorghum downy mildew, sorghum and maize smuts
viral virus Maize dwarf mosaic virus, tobacco mosaic virus on tomato, cassava
mosaic virus, maize streak virus on maize

MODE OF INFECTION, HARMFUL EFFECTS, PREVENTION AND

CONTROL OF PLANT DISEASES (bacterial, viral, fungal).
Disease Mode of infection Harmful effects Prevention /control
Bacterial Pseudomonas solanacearum Temporary or permanent Using seeds and seedlings
wilt of (bacterium) wilting of affected plants; certified free from the
tomatoes) -The pathogen is soil-borne, and death of infected plants; diseases, using resistant
it gets into the plant tissue chlorosis and necrosis and varieties, rooting out
through root wounds; It affects leaf shedding; discoloured affected plants and destroy
the vascular bundles, xylem vessels; mass of slimy them by burning, weeding,
particularly the xylem vessels; bacteria form in conducting sterilizing or fumigating soil
water and nutrients conducting vessels of roots and stems; used in plant nurseries
process is interrupted. severe crop loss
Maize A virus is transmitted by Leaves turn light green with Using resistant varieties,
streak leafhoppers. yellow stripes running planting early in the rains,

21
virus on -The maize streak virus is parallel to the leaf veins. This rooting out the infected
maize introduced into the tissue of the reduces the photosynthetic plants and burning them,
host plant by sap sucking area; small and partially filled spray with carbaryl
leafhoppers; the pathogen ears (cobs); reduced crop
affects mainly the leaf tissue. yields
Leaf spots Source of infection is air borne Severe leaf spotting resulting Destruction of crop
of conidia (asexual reproductive in premature leaf loss; residues; early planting;
groundnuts structures of the fungus) carried reduced photosynthetic adequate or proper spacing;
from the infected plants, capacity of affected plants; optimal fertilization of soil;
volunteer crops and crop reduced crop yield; apply benomyl (benlate) and
residues. appearance of captafol(difolatan).
lesions(wounds) on stems.

APPROPRIATE USE OF TOOLS, EQUIPMENT, MACHINERY, AND

MATERIALS FOR CONTROLLING CROP DISEASES
When controlling crop diseases, it is essential to use tools, equipment, machinery, and
materials correctly while ensuring safety, health, and environmental protection.
1. TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT IN DISEASE CONTROL
a) Manual Tools
 Pruning Shears & Knives: Used to remove infected plant parts (e.g., diseased leaves,
stems, fruits).
o Safety: Wear gloves to prevent cuts and infections.
o Environment: Disinfect tools after each use to prevent pathogen spread.
 Hoes & Hand Forks: Used for uprooting diseased plants and improving soil aeration.
o Safety: Use proper posture to prevent strain injuries.
o Environment: Avoid excessive soil disturbance to maintain microbial balance.
 Sprayers (Knapsack, Handheld, Motorized): Used for applying pesticides, fungicides,
or biological controls.
o Safety: Wear protective gear (gloves, mask, goggles) to prevent inhalation or
skin contact.
o Health: Avoid spraying in windy conditions to minimize drift.
o Environment: Use recommended doses to prevent chemical pollution.
b) Machinery for Disease Control
 Tractors & Boom Sprayers: Used for large-scale pesticide or fungicide application.
o Safety: Operators must be trained to handle the machinery.
o Health: Ensure proper calibration to avoid excessive chemical exposure.
o Environment: Use precision spraying to reduce runoff and contamination.
 Soil Sterilization Equipment (Steam Machines, Flame Weeders): Used to control soil-
borne pathogens.
o Safety: Use protective equipment to avoid burns and inhalation hazards.
o Environment: Steam sterilization is eco-friendly compared to chemical
fumigation.
2. MATERIALS USED IN DISEASE CONTROL
a) Chemicals (Fungicides, Bactericides, Nematicides, Insecticides)
 Safety: Read labels and follow application guidelines.
 Health: Store in labelled, locked cabinets away from food and water sources.

22
  Environment: Avoid overuse to prevent pesticide resistance and groundwater
contamination.
b) Biological Control Agents
 Example: parasitoids.
 Health: Safer than chemical pesticides but should still be applied in recommended
doses.
 Environment: Promotes biodiversity and reduces chemical dependency.
c) Organic & Cultural Control Methods
 Mulching: Reduces disease spread by preventing soil splash.
 Crop Rotation: Breaks pathogen life cycles.
 Resistant Varieties: Reduces reliance on pesticides.
3. SAFETY, HEALTH, AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS
a) Personal Protective Equipment (PPE): - Gloves, Face Masks, Goggles, and overalls protect
workers from chemical exposure.
b) Proper Waste Disposal: - Dispose of empty pesticide containers according to regulations
(triple rinse, puncture, and bury or recycle).
c) Training & Awareness: - Farmers and workers should be trained in Integrated Pest
Management (IPM) to minimize health and environmental risks.

LO 4.5 SAFE USE OF CHEMICALS IN THE FARM

SAFE HANDLING OF FARM CHEMICALS
Proper handling of farm chemicals is essential to protect human health, crops, and the
environment.
1. Before Application
Read the Label: -Always follow the manufacturer's instructions regarding dosage, application
method, and safety precautions; Wear personal protective equipment (PPE):- Use gloves,
goggles, masks, coveralls, and boots to prevent skin contact and inhalation; Check weather
conditions:- Avoid spraying in windy or rainy weather to minimize drift and runoff; Calibrate
equipment:- Ensure sprayers or applicators are correctly adjusted to avoid over-application;
Prepare only the needed amount:- Mixing more than required leads to wastage and
environmental pollution; Mix in a well-ventilated area:- Always mix chemicals in an open
space or under a well-ventilated shed to prevent inhalation of fumes; Keep children and
animals away:- Ensure that unauthorized persons are not present during preparation.
2. During Application
Follow recommended application rate:- Overuse can harm crops, beneficial insects, and the
environment; Apply during early morning or late afternoon:- Avoid midday heat to reduce
chemical evaporation and drift; Maintain a safe distance:- Keep a safe distance from water
sources, food crops, and livestock when applying chemicals; Avoid eating, drinking, or
smoking:- This prevents accidental ingestion of toxic substances; Use proper spraying
techniques:- Apply in a uniform manner to ensure effectiveness without wastage; Keep
sprayers in good condition:- Leaking or clogged nozzles can result in uneven application or
exposure risks.
3. Storage of Farm Chemicals
Store in a designated area:- Keep chemicals in a cool, dry, well-ventilated, locked storage
facility away from food, water, and livestock; Keep chemicals in original containers:- Never
transfer chemicals into unmarked or food-related containers to prevent accidental poisoning;

23
 Label clearly:- Ensure that all chemicals are labelled with their name, usage, and safety
instructions; Keep out of reach of children and animals:- Lock storage areas and place
warning signs; Check expiry dates regularly:- Dispose of expired chemicals safely as per
local regulations; Store separately from fertilizers and seeds:- Chemicals can contaminate
fertilizers and seeds if stored together.
4. Disposal of Chemical Containers
Triple Rinse Empty Containers:
Fill the container 1/4 with clean water, shake, and pour into the sprayer; Repeat three times
before disposal; Puncture and crush containers: - Prevents reuse for food or water storage;
Dispose in designated areas: Follow local agricultural guidelines for safe chemical waste
disposal; -Do not burn or bury containers: - Burning releases toxic fumes, and burying can
contaminate soil and groundwater.

CALIBRATION OF KNAPSACK SPRAYER

Calibrating a knapsack sprayer is essential to ensure the correct application of chemicals,
minimizing waste and maximizing effectiveness.
Weather conditions should be considered before chemical application: -
Avoid spraying in strong winds (>10 km/h) to minimize drift; High temperatures can cause
evaporation and reduce effectiveness; Low humidity increases evaporation, spray early
morning or late afternoon; Do not spray if rain is expected soon, as it can wash off chemicals.

Calibration Process
1. Select and measure a sample/ test area (usually 100m2).
2. Fill the spray tank with a known volume of water (litres).
3. Proceed to spray at a normal speed and constant height until the test area is complete’
4. Measure the amount of water remaining in the tank.
5. Determine the amount of water used by subtracting the final water volume from the
initial water volume.
6. Calculate the spray volume (SV) of the sprayer using the formula:

SV= initial water volume (Vi) - Final water volume (Vf)/Area of test site
(As)
SV= Vi-Vf/As=Litres/m2
To calculate the amount of spray mixture needed to spray a given field
area use the formula.
Quantity Of the spray mixture needed (Qm) = SVX Area of field (m2)= Vi-Vf/ AsX Af where Af
is area of field.

ESSENTIAL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING FOR CHEMICAL HANDLING

1. Overalls / Protective Suit: - Made of waterproof/chemical-resistant material (e.g.,
PVC); Should cover the entire body to prevent skin contact; Preferably long-sleeved
and full-length.

24
 2. Gloves: - Made of nitrile, neoprene, or rubber (avoid fabric or leather, as they absorb
chemicals); Extend beyond the wrist for better protection; Should be chemical-
resistant and checked for leaks before use.
3. Respirator / Face Mask; Chemical cartridge respirators (for toxic fumes and fine
sprays); Dust masks (for powders or granules); Should be approved (or equivalent)
and properly fitted.
4. Goggles / Face Shield: - Protects eyes from splashes, mists, or dust; Should be
chemical-resistant with indirect ventilation; A full-face shield can provide extra
protection.
5. Boots: - Waterproof, chemical-resistant rubber or neoprene boots; Should cover up to
the mid-calf and be worn over the pant legs to prevent chemical entry.
6. Head Covering / Hat: - Waterproof wide-brimmed hat to protect the head, neck, and
face from spray drift; Avoid absorbent materials like cotton.
IMPORTANCE OF SAFE STORAGE OF FARM CHEMICALS
Proper storage of farm chemicals (pesticides, herbicides, fertilizers, and other agrochemicals)
is crucial to protect human health, the environment, and farm productivity.
1. Prevents Accidental Poisoning
Protects farmers, workers, children, and animals from accidental exposure; Reduces risks of
inhalation, skin contact, or ingestion of toxic substances.
2. Maintains Chemical Effectiveness
Protects chemicals from extreme temperatures, moisture, and sunlight, which can degrade
their effectiveness; Ensures that chemicals remain potent and safe for use.
3. Reduces Fire and Explosion Hazards
Many farm chemicals are flammable, proper storage away from heat sources, sparks, or
flames prevents fire hazards.
4. Prevents Environmental Contamination
Prevents leakage or spills that could contaminate soil, water sources, and air; Reduces risks of
chemical runoff into nearby rivers, lakes, or groundwater.
5. Ensures Compliance with Regulations
The government and agricultural policies require safe chemical storage; helps farmers avoid
legal penalties and fines for improper handling.
6. Enhances Farm Safety and Organization
Keeps chemicals well-labelled, properly arranged, and easy to access; Prevents mixing of
incompatible chemicals, which could cause dangerous reactions.
APPROPRIATE USE OF TOOLS, EQUIPMENT, MACHINERY, AND
MATERIALS WHEN HANDLING FARM CHEMICALS
(With Consideration for Safety, Health, and the Environment)
Proper handling of farm chemicals (pesticides, herbicides, fungicides, fertilizers) using the
right tools, equipment, machinery, and materials is essential to protect human health, the
environment, and farm productivity.
1. Tools for Handling Farm Chemicals
Examples: Measuring cups, mixing sticks, sprayer wrenches, scoops, funnels.
Safe and Appropriate Use
Use dedicated tools only for chemical handling (do not use for food or water); Measure
accurately to avoid overuse or under-application; Clean tools after use to prevent
contamination; Store tools in a safe, locked area, away from children and food storage.

25
2. Equipment for Chemical Application
Examples: Knapsack sprayers, boom sprayers, foggers, seed treatment drums.
Safe and Appropriate Use
Calibrate sprayers before use to ensure accurate chemical application; Maintain consistent
speed and height when spraying for even coverage; Check for leaks or blockages in nozzles
and hoses before use; Use only approved and well-maintained sprayers to prevent chemical
drift; Clean sprayers thoroughly after use, disposing of rinse water safely.
3. Machinery for Large-Scale Chemical Application
Examples: Tractor-mounted sprayers, drone sprayers, fertilizer spreaders.
Safe and Appropriate Use
Train operators to handle machinery safely and avoid chemical overuse; Spray in calm
weather (low wind speed) to reduce drift and environmental contamination; Use GPS-guided
systems for precision application, minimizing wastage; Regularly inspect and maintain
machinery to prevent breakdowns and leaks.
4. Materials Used with Farm Chemicals
Examples: Pesticides, herbicides, fertilizers, surfactants, fuel, cleaning solutions.
Safe and Appropriate Use
Always read and follow label instructions for chemical handling and application; Store
chemicals properly in a well-ventilated, locked storage area away from food and water
sources; Use correct Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) (gloves, masks, goggles,
coveralls); Mix chemicals in designated areas with no risk of contaminating water bodies;
Dispose of empty containers safely (triple rinse, puncture, and return to authorized disposal
centres).
Considerations for Safety, Health & Environment
Personal Safety & Health
Wear appropriate PPE when handling or applying chemicals; Wash hands and exposed skin
immediately after handling chemicals; Avoid eating, drinking, or smoking while working
with chemicals; Seek medical attention immediately in case of poisoning or exposure.
Environmental Protection
Avoid spraying near water bodies (rivers, lakes, wells) to prevent contamination; Apply
chemicals in the right weather conditions (avoid windy, rainy days); Prevent chemical spills
and clean up any leaks using absorbent materials; Use biodegradable chemicals or organic
alternatives when possible.

LO 4.6 MAIZE PRODUCTION IN BOTSWANA

CLIMATIC REQUIREMENTS
TEMPERATURE
Maize is a summer crop, 24oC – 30oC being the optimum temperature range for its growth.
Maize is very sensitive to frost and do not grow below 10oC.
RAINFALL
Maize requires abundant moisture. Rainfall of 500-900 mm, well distributed, is sufficient to
grow a good crop. Supplementary irrigation is essential when rainfall is insufficient.
SOIL REQUIREMENTS

26
Deep sandy loam, rich in plant nutrients and humus; free- draining soils to avoid water-
logging conditions; an optimum pH range of 5.2 to 7.5
PREPARATION OF THE SEEDBED
Plough as early as April – May to allow buried crop residues and weeds enough time to decay
and fertilize the soil; plough to depth of 20-25cm; disc the ploughed field to reduce clod size
and to incorporate manures and lime into the soil; harrow seedbed well and work it to a
medium tilth; just before planting, cultivate to kill weeds that have started to grow and to
break up soil crusts.

PLANTING (sowing)
Time of sowing
Maize planted in first half of November is considered early planted. Maize can still be
planted in first half of December. It is crucial to time planting such that the plant flowers and
grains fill outside mid-December and mid-January.
Method of planting
Maize is planted in rows by hand or using mechanical planters to facilitate field operations
such as weeding, spraying
Depth of planting
Usually 5-7 cm, but 10 cm is recommended for large, seeded cultivars
Spacing and seed rate
Inter-row spacing is 90 cm and intra-row is 30-50 cm. seed rate is 15kg/ha
Fertilizer requirement
Apply 12t/ha of kraal manure once every 3 years; add 500 kg/ha of lime on acidic soils six
weeks before planting once every 3 years; apply 200 kg/ha single superphosphate as basal
dressing; top dress with LAN at 150 kg/ha or Urea at 100 kg/ ha when plants reach 5-6 weeks
after emergence.

Weed control
Control witchweed by crop rotation; mechanical weeding by hoeing, hand pulling or inter-
row cultivators; chemical weeding using Atrazine and Simazine are pre-emergence herbicides
while MCPA and 2,4, D are post-emergence herbicides used with maize.

Common Pests
Stalk –borer
Damage caused
Caterpillars feed on the underside of the upper leaves making holes; feed on growing points
from the centre of the plant; tunnel deep into the stalk making it weak; bores holes through
the stalk and cob

27
Prevention and control
Collect and destroy crop residues soon after harvesting; practice winter ploughing to destroy
the crop remains; practice crop rotation; add Dipterex granules into the funnel at the top of
each plant

Common maize diseases

Maize Streak Virus
It is caused by a virus that is spread by leafhoppers
Symptoms
White to yellow streaks(stripes) running parallel to the leaf veins/midrib; stunted growth;
inflorescence may become sterile.
Prevention and control
Plant resistant varieties; practice early planting; remove and burn all infected plants and plant
residues; spray with carbaryl once a week for 2 to 3 weeks.
Signs of maturity
Dry maize is ready for harvesting when: -
Husks are dry and papery; grains are hard with glossy surfaces- the grains can no longer be
scratched with fingernail; cobs hang down; moisture content of grains should be at 20% level
Harvesting
Fresh maize is ready for harvesting 90-105 days after planting and dry maize after 125 days.
Harvesting is done by hand or by use of a combine harvester. After harvesting the cobs are
dried naturally or artificially in traditional granaries or cribs.
Shelling
Dried cobs are shelled by hand or a mechanical sheller. Shelled grains are then passed
through a winnowing machine to blow out dust, chaff and weed seed.
Storage
Shelled and dried maize is stored in bulk, in sacks or in silos. In a small scale, traditional
storage facilities such as baskets, drums, granaries are used to store maize grains.
Marketing
Fresh cobs are sold to individual members of the community or retailers. Grain maize is sold
to BAMB. Forces of demand and supply determine the price in the market for fresh cobs.
Import parity pricing policy is used by BAMB to determine price for grain maize for farmers.
Record keeping
a) Diary: in which important events are recorded on daily basis

28
 b) Production records include Labour use record, machine or tractor use record, water
and fertilizer use record, yields, planting and harvesting time, cultivars and inputs
used.
c) Financial records:
They include income and expenditure record, sales record, record of debtors and
creditors, cash book, profit and loss account, balance sheet.
Relevant legislation
a) Control of maize milling act of 1961 provides for control of maize milling and
purchasing through issuing of commercial miller’s license
b) Agrochemicals act of 1999 provides for registration and licensing of agrochemicals,
promotion and advertising.
c) Botswana Agricultural Marketing Board Act of 1974 provides for grading
classification of maize among other things.

29