CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO STATISTICS

1.1 Definition

Statistics is an art and science which deals with collection,

presentation, analysis and interpretation of data.

1.2 Uses of Statistics

Statistics helps people answer questions and make decisions about many
things. For example, in education, statistics can be used to assess
students’ performance and correlate factors affecting teaching and learning
processes to improve quality of education. In Psychology, statistics is
used to determine attitudinal patterns, the causes and effects of
misbehavior. In business and economics, statistics is used to analyze a
wide range of data like sales, outputs, price indices, revenues, costs,
inventories, accounts, etc. This is to monitor status of customers,
employees, orders, and production. In research and experimentation,
statistics is used to validate or test a claim or inferences about a group
of people or object, or a series of events. In the field of medicine,
statistics is used to collect information about patients and diseases and
to make decisions about the use of new drugs or treatment. Meteorologists
use statistics to find patterns in the weather and make predictions about
what future weather will be like. Another important use of statistics is in
demographics, the study of the size, vital characteristics of the
population, and how they might change over time. Perhaps most familiar to
us are the statistics reported in the news media about important issues.

1.3 Fields of Statistics

Descriptive statistics is concerned with the methods of collecting,

organizing and presenting data appropriately and creatively to describe or
assess group characteristics.
 Inferential statistics is concerned with inferring or drawing
conclusions about the population based from pre-selected elements of that
population.

In research, the so-called Descriptive Normative Approach is basically

concerned with the percentage distribution of respondents, average or
typical characteristics of the group, the homogeneity or heterogeneity of
characteristics and degree of relationships of group characteristics.
Measures of location (mean, median, mode, quartiles, deciles, percentiles),
measures of variability (range, variance, standard deviation, coefficient
of variability), and measures of tendencies (skewness and kurtosis) are the
most common statistical tools under descriptive statistics.

In inferential statistics, testing the significant difference and

independence between two or more variables are given emphasis. An assertion
or hypothesis about the population is made and is intended to be rejected
or accepted depending on the result of a test based from available samples.
Some of the tools under this field are the following: Normal Distribution
(area under the curve), Sampling Distribution (sample size, standard
scores), Probability Distribution (priori, posteriori, binomial, Bernoulli,
geometric, hypergeometric), Estimation (confidence interval, test of
significance, alpha/beta errors), and Hypothesis Testing (Z-test, T-test,
Chi-square test, F-test or Analysis of Variance).

1.4 Constants and Variables

Constants refer to the fundamental quantities that do not change in

value. Fixed costs and acceleration due to gravity are examples of such.

Variables, on the other hand, are quantities that may take anyone of a
special set of values (where variables vary in a certain condition or
situation). These set of values can be classified as qualitative
(categorical) and quantitative (numerical) variables.

1.5 Types of Measurement

The data can be classified into two types. These are the continuous
and discontinuous or discrete data.

Continuous data are measures like feet, pounds, kilos, minutes and
meters. These kinds of data can be made into measurement of varying
degrees of precision, for example, 1 yard equals 3 feet, 1 foot equals 12
inches.

Discontinuous or discrete data are measurement expressed in whole

units. Counting of people, number of objects, numbers of cars passing by,
number of houses, number of students, workers, and so on.

1.6 Measurement of Scales

 According to Stevens, there are four types of scales that are used in
sciences.

Nominal scales are used as measures of identity. Examples of this are

classification of individuals into categories. Like gender, male and
female; yes and no answers; in religion for instance, Muslims and
Christians; for political parties, LP, PDP, UNA, and LAKAS; dwelling place,
rural and urban, and more of such categories.

Ordinal scale is used in measurement like ranking of individuals or

objects. Ordinal measures reveal which person or object is larger or small,
harder or softer, responses like strongly agree, agree, no opinion,
disagree, and strongly disagree.

Interval scales are numbers that reflect differences among items.

Examples are scores in a test, grades of students, ages, blood pressures,
Fahrenheit and Celsius thermometers.

Ratio scale is the highest type of scale. The basic difference between
the interval and ratio scale is that ratio scale are the measures of
length, weight, loudness, width, and so on.

1.7 SUMMATION NOTATION

PROPERTIES OF SUMMATION NOTATION ( Σ ):

n
1 ¿ . Σ xi = x1 + x2 + … + x n
i=1

n
2. ¿ Σ c = cn
i=1

n n n
3. ¿ Σ ( xi + yi ) = Σ xi + Σ yi
i=1 i=1 i=1

n n n
4. ¿ Σ ( xi - yi ) = Σ xi - Σ yi
i=1 i=1 i=1

n n n
5. ¿ Σ c (xi + yi ) = Σ cxi + Σ c yi
i=1 i=1 i=1

n
6. ¿ Σ xiyi = x1y1 + x2y2 + … + xnyn
i=1

n
 xi x1 x2 xn
7.) Σ = + + … +
yi y1 y2 yn
i=1

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES:
1.) Write the following expressions in summation notation.
15
a.) 3x4 + 3x5 + … + 3x15 = Σ 3xi
i=4

20
b.) (X10 + 5) + (x11 + 5) +…+ (x20 + 5) = Σ (xi + 5)
i=10

2.) Expand the following summation notation.

30
a.) Σ (xi / 2) = x8 + x9 + … + x30
i=8 2 2 2
10
b.) Σ 5y2i = 5y22 + 5y23 + … + 5y210
i=2

3.) Evaluate the following summation.

Given x1 = 1, x2 = -1, x3 = 2, y1 = -2, y2 = 3, y3 = 4. Evaluate the
following summation.

3
a . ¿ Σ x i y2i = x1y21 + x2y22 + x3y23
i=1 = [(1)(-2)2] + [(-1)(3)2] + [(2)(4)2]
= [(1)(4)] + [(-1)(9)] + [(2)(16)]
= 4 + (-9) + 32
= 27 //ans.

3
b.) Σ ¿i + yi + 3) = [(-1) + (3) + 3] + [(2) + (4) + 3]
i=2 = [5] + [9]
= 14 //ans.

4
c .¿ Σ 5 = 4(5) = 20//ans.
i=1

1.8 STATISTICAL SYMBOLS

 The students in statistics should familiarize the use of the following
symbols although notational usage varies from one author to another author
but there are some of the common symbols used in statistics.
SYMBOLS MEANING/USES
Σ Capital letter sigma denotes summation of, the sum
of…
F Small letter f denotes frequencies
F Capital letter F denotes cumulative frequencies
N Small letter n denotes sample size
I Small letter i denotes interval
N Capital letter N denotes population size
X Capital letter X denotes independent variable
Y Capital letter Y denotes dependent variable
x Denotes mean of the sample
μ Denotes population mean

 The students will find very useful to familiarize the following

expressions:
x = y → x equals y
x ≠ y → x is not equal to y
x > y → x is greater than y
x < y → x is less than y
x > y → x is greater than or equal to y
x < y → x is less than or equal to y

The characteristics of the population is called parameter while the

characteristics of the sample is called statistic. Consider the following
different symbols on the characteristics, parameter and statistic.

Characteristics Parameter Statistic

Mean μ, mu x
Standard deviation σ sigma
, s
Variance S2 s2
Number of cases N n
Proportion P P

1.9 COLLECTION OF DATA

The first step in any statistical work after the formulation of the problem
is the collection of data. Data may be gathered by the following methods:

1. INTERVIEW. This method is referred to as the direct method of gathering data

because this requires a face to face inquiry with the respondent.
2. QUESTIONNAIRE. This method is referred to as the indirect method of
gathering data because this makes use of written questions to be answered by
the respondent.
3. OBSERVATION. This method makes use of the different human senses in
gathering information.
 4. REGISTRATION OR CENSUS. This method requires the enactment of law to take
effect because it needs the participation of a large, if not the entire,
population.
5. EXPERIMENTATION. This method is usually conducted in laboratories where
specimens are subjected to some aspects of control to find out cause and
effect relationships.

Data gathered may be classified as primary or secondary.

PRIMARY DATA – are information gathered directly from the source.

SECONDARY DATA – are gathered from the secondary sources, such as books,
journals, magazines, or thesis of other researchers.

1.10 Population and Sample

In statistical usage, the word population is a finite or infinite

collection of objects, events or individuals with specified class or
characteristics under consideration, such as students in a certain
university, legitimate taxi drivers in Metro Manila, cellular phone users,
etc. A sample is part of the population wherein selected individuals are
drawn from the population. A sample represents the entire population under
study.

1.10.1 Slovin’s Formula in Determining the Sample Size

Let N be the population size and margin of error e denotes the allowed
probability of committing and error in selecting a small representative of
the population. The sample size n can be obtained by the formula, n =
N
2 .
1+ N e

The margin of error e could range between 1% and 10% depending on the
desire or intention of the researcher. However, the researcher should be
aware of the Law of Large Numbers which states, “The larger size of the
sample, the more certain we can be sure that the sample mean will be good
estimate of the population mean. “The larger the size of the sample, the
closer its characteristics would be to the characteristics of the entire
population.

In data gathering, information is usually taken from a sample. The

number of samples is determined by using the Slovin’s formula.
n = N where n = number of samples, N = number of population,
1 + Ne2 e = margin of error

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES:
 1.) Find the sample size if the population if the population size is
1500 at 95% accuracy.

Solution: At 95% accuracy, the margin of error is 5%. Using slovin’s

formula, we have
n = N________
1 + Ne2
= 1500________
1 + 1500(.05)2
= 315.78 or 316 //ans.

2.) A researcher is conducting an investigation regarding the factors

affecting the performance of 500 teachers in the 3 rd district of
Isabela. If the margin of error is 3%, how many of the teachers should
be taken as respondents?

Solution: At 3% margin of error, we have 97% accuracy. Using slovin’s

formula, we have
n = N________
1 + Ne2
= 500________
1 + 500(.03)2
= 344.8 or 345 //ans.

3.) What is the sample size if the population is 3000 and the margin of
error is set at
a.) 5% b.) 3%

SOLUTION:

The margin of error is 5% or 0.05, then

n = 3000__

1 + (3000)(0.05)2

n = 352.94 //ans.

Therefore, the sample size at 5 % margin of error is 353. //ans.

SOLUTION:

b.) The margin of error is 3 % or 0.03, then

n = 3000_

1 + (3000)(0.03)2

n = 810.81

Therefore, the sample size at 3 % margin of error is 811.//ans.

The above example suggests that as the margin of error is set at a smaller
percentage, the number of samples gets closer and closer to the number of
population. Note that a certain degree of error is committed when samples
are used instead of the entire population.

What if the sample size is given? How do we determine the population?

Consider the examples below.

4.) What is the population if 70 is used as a sample and the margin of

error is set at
a.) 7% b.) 9%

Solution:

a.) The margin of error is 7% or 0.07, then

70 = N_______

1 + (N)(0.07)2

n = 70 + 70(.07)2 N

n = 70 + 0.343N

0.657N = 70

N = 107 //ans.

Solution:

b.) The margin of error is 9% or 0.09, then

70 = N_______

1 + (N)(0.09)2

n = 70 + 70(.09)2 N

n = 70 + 0.567N

0.433N = 70

N = 162 //ans.

NOTE: After determining the number of samples, the next thing to do is to

know how these samples will be gathered and what factors are to be
considered in getting these samples.

1.11 DIFFERENT SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

1. PROBABILITY SAMPLING. It is a sampling procedure where every element of

a population is given an equal chance of being selected as a member of the
sample.
A. Random Sampling. This basic sampling procedure may be done by lottery or
with the aid of a table of Random of Numbers, or the random of function of
a scientific calculator. For a bigger population, computers can be
programmed to randomly select the samples.

B. Systematic Sampling. This is an alternative to simple random sampling

especially when the population is too big that random sampling becomes
tedious. Random starting point is selected from the list of population. The
samples are determined by choosing every nth element on the list until the
desired number of samples are drawn.

C. Stratified Random Sampling. This is done by creating different classes

or strata within the population. The grouping may be done based on grade
level, income groupings, and gender, among others.

D. Cluster Sampling. If the population is too big, a sampling method may

be employed to smaller area. The population may be divided geographically
into regions, divisions, or districts. To these smaller areas, other
probability sampling procedure can be employed.

2. NONPROBABILITY SAMPLING. This is a sampling procedure in which not every

element of the population is given an equal chance of being selected as
sample. The drawing of samples is based purely on the researchers’
objectives.

A. Convenience Sampling. The researchers’ convenience is the primary

concern in using this method. For instance, if the convenience of having
internet connections will be considered, not every element of a population
is given the chance to be chosen as a sample since not everyone has access
to this technology.

B. Quota Sampling. This is similar to stratified sampling but the drawing

of samples in quota sampling is not done randomly. If the desired quota is
reached, the drawing of samples is terminated.

C. Purposive sampling. This is used when the specific objective under

study requires a particular sample which may not cover the entire
population.

PREPARED BY:

GILBERT [Link], DME