Kinematics of fluids in motion
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Learning Objectives
discuss the differences between the Eulerian and Lagrangian descriptions
of fluid motion.
■ identify various flow characteristics based on the velocity field.
■ determine the streamline pattern and acceleration field given a velocity
field.
■ discuss the differences between a system and control volume.
■ apply the Reynolds transport theorem and the material derivative
Introduction
Kinematics is the geometry of Motion
It’s describes the fluid motion and its consequences without consideration of the nature of
forces causing the motion.
it is emphasized to know how fluid flows and how to describe fluid motion. This concept
helps us to simplify the complex nature of a real fluid flow.
When a fluid is in motion, individual particles in the fluid move at different velocities.
Moreover at different instants fluid particles change their positions. In order to analyze the
flow behavior, a function of space and time, we follow one of the following approaches.
Lagarangian approaches
1. Lagarangian approach
In the Lagarangian approach a fluid particle of fixed mass is selected. We
follow the fluid particle during the course of motion with time
The fluid particles may change their shape, size and state as they move. As
mass of fluid particles remains constant throughout the motion, the basic
laws of mechanics can be applied to them at all times. The task of
following large number of fluid particles is quite difficult. Therefore this
approach is limited to some special applications for example re-entry of a
spaceship into the earth's atmosphere and flow measurement system
based on particle imagery.
Advantages of Lagrangian Method
Since motion and trajectory of each fluid particle is known, its history can
be traced.
Since particles are identified at the start and traced throughout their
motion, conservation of mass is inherent
Disadvantages of Lagrangian Method:
The solution of the equations presents appreciable mathematical
difficulties except certain special cases and therefore, the method is rarely
suitable for practical applications
Eularian method
In the Eularian method a finite region through which fluid flows in and out is
used
track position and velocity of fluid particles of definite mass are not kept.
the field variables which are continuous functions of space dimensions ( x ,
y , z ) and time ( t ), are defined to describe the flow.
These field variables may be scalar field variables, vector field variables
and tensor quantities.
pressure is one of the scalar fields. Sometimes this finite region is referred as
control volume or flow domain.
Eularian method
For example the pressure field 'P' is a scalar field variable and defined as 𝜌 = 𝜌(𝑋, 𝑌, 𝑍, 𝑡)
Velocity field, a vector field, is defined as ⊽=⊽(X,Y,Z,t)
Note that we have defined the fluid flow as a three dimensional flow in a Cartesian co-
ordinates system.
Similarly shear stress is a tensor field variable and defined as
Note that we have defined the fluid flow as a three dimensional flow in a Cartesian co-ordinates
system
The Velocity Field is the time rate of change of the position vector for that
particle.
We define the velocity field as a vector field variable in
similar fashion, Velocity field: V=V(x, y, z, t)
Pressure field:P = P(x, y, z, t)
Likewise, the acceleration field is also a vector field
variable,
we define field variables, as functions of space and time
within the control volume
the pressure field is a scalar field variable; for general
unsteady three dimensional fluid flow in Cartesian
coordinates
The Velocity Field
The typical velocities at different locations within the fluid domain vary from position to
position at a particular time t . At different time instants this velocity distribution may change
Keeping this observation in mind, the velocity within a flow domain can be represented as
function of position ( x , y , z ) and time t
In the Cartesian co-ordinates the variation of velocity can be represented as a vector
V=V(x, y, z, t)= uiˆ+ vjˆ+ wkˆ where u , v , w are the velocity scalar components in x , y
and z directions respectively
In almost any flow situation, the velocity field actually contains all three velocity
components
The Velocity Field
The scalar components u , v and w are dependent functions of position
and time. Mathematically we can express them as
U=u(x,y,z,t) Let a fluid particle exactly positioned at point A moving to another
V=v(x,y,z,t) point A’ during time interval . The velocity of the fluid particle is
W=w(x,y,z,t) the same as the local velocity at that point as obtained from the
Eulerian description
At time t ,⊽ particle at x , y , z t=⊽(x,y,z,t)
This type of continuous function
At time t+△t , ⊽ particle at (x,y,z) (t+△t )= ⊽(x’,y’,z’, t+△t )
distribution with position and time for
This means that instead of describing the motion of the fluid
velocity is known as velocity field. It is flow using the Lagrangian description, the use of Eularian
based on the Eularian description of the description makes the fluid flow problems quite easier to solve.
flow. We also can represent the Besides this difficult, the complete description of a fluid flow
using the Lagrangian description requires to keep track over a
Lagrangian description of velocity field large number of fluid particles and their movements with time.
Thus, more computation is required in the Lagrangian
description
The Acceleration field
At given position A, the acceleration of a fluid particle is the time derivative of
the particle's velocity.
𝑑𝑉𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒
Acceleration of a fluid particle:𝑎റ = 𝑑𝑡
Since the particle velocity is a function of four independent variables ( x , y , z
and t ), we can express the particle velocity in terms of the position of the particle
as given below
The Acceleration field
Applying chain rule,
Where 𝛿and d are the partial derivative operator and total derivative operator respectively.
The time rate of change of the particle in the x -direction equals to the x -component of
velocity vector, u
𝑑𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠
=u As discussed earlier the position vector of the fluid particle ( x
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑦𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 particle , y particle , z particle ) in the Lagranian description is
=V the same as the position vector ( x , y , z ) in the Eulerian frame
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑧𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 at time t and the acceleration of the fluid particle, which
=w occupied the position ( x , y , z ) is equal to a(x,y,z,t)in the
𝑑𝑡
Eularian description
The Acceleration field
𝛿𝑣 𝛿𝑣 𝛿𝑣 𝛿𝑣
the acceleration is defined by 𝑎(𝑥,
റ 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝛿𝑡
+𝜇 𝛿𝑥
+ 𝑣 𝛿𝑦+w 𝛿𝑧
𝛿𝑣
in vector form 𝑎റ 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡 = റ 𝛻)𝑣റ local acceleration and convective
+ (𝑣.
𝛿𝑡
acceleration respectively.
where𝛻 is the gradient operator.
The first term of the right hand side of equation represents the time rate of
change of velocity field at the position of the fluid particle at time t . This
acceleration component is also independent to the change of the particle
position and is referred as the local acceleration.
the term(𝑣.റ 𝛻)𝑣റ accounts for the affect of the change of the velocity at various
positions in this field. This rate of change of velocity because of changing
position in the field is called the convective acceleration
Types of Fluid Flow
Uniform and Non-uniform flow : If the velocity at given instant is the same in
both magnitude and direction throughout the flow domain, the flow is
described as uniform
Mathematically the velocity field is defined
as 𝑣റ = 𝑣(𝑡)
റ , independent to space
dimensions ( x , y , z ).
When the velocity changes from point to
point it is said to be non-uniform flow. Fig.
shows uniform flow in test section of a well
designed wind tunnel and describing non
uniform velocity region at the entrance.
Steady and unsteady flows
The flow in which the field variables don't vary with time is said to be
𝛿𝑣
steady flow. 𝛿𝑡 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑣റ = 𝑣(𝑥,
റ 𝑦, 𝑧)
It means that the field variables are independent of time. This assumption
simplifies the fluid problem to a great extent. Generally, many engineering
flow devices and systems are designed to operate them during a peak
steady flow condition.
If the field variables in a fluid region vary with time the flow is said to be
𝛿𝑣
unsteady flow . 𝛿𝑡 ≠ 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑣റ = 𝑣(𝑥,
റ 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡)
Four possible combinations
Although fluid flow generally occurs in three dimensions in
which the velocity field vary with three space co-ordinates and
time. But, in some problem we may use one or two space
components to describe the velocity field. For example consider
a steady flow through a long straight pipe of constant cross-
section. The velocity distributions shown in figure are
independent of co-ordinate x and𝜃 and a function of r only.
Thus the flow field is one dimensional.
But in the case of flow over a weir of
constant cross-section (), we can use two
co-ordinate system x and z in defining the
velocity field. So, this flow is a case of
two dimensional flow. The reduction of
independent space variable in a fluid flow
problem makes it simpler to solve
Laminar and Turbulent flow
there are two distinct fluid behaviors experimentally observed. These behaviors were first
observed by Sir Osborne Reynolds. He carried out a simple experiment in which water was
discharged through a small glass tube from a large tank (the schematic of the experiment
shown in Fig.). A colour dye was injected at the entrance of the tube and the rate of flow
could be regulated by a valve at the out let
When the water flowed at low velocity, it was found that the die moved in a straight line. This
clearly showed that the particles of water moved in parallel lines. This type of flow is called
laminar flow, in which the particles of fluid moves along smooth paths in layers. There is no
exchange of momentum from fluid particles of one layer to the fluid particles of another layer.
This type of flow mainly occurs in high viscous fluid flows at low velocity, for example, oil flows
at low velocity. Fig. shows the steady velocity profile for a typical laminar flow.
When the water flowed at high velocity, it was found that the dye colour was diffused over
the whole cross section. This could be interpreted that the particles of fluid moved in very
irregular paths, causing an exchange of momentum from one fluid particle to another. This
type of flow is known as turbulent flow. The time variation of velocity at a point for the
turbulent flow is shown in Fig
Laminar and Turbulent flow
It means that the flow is characterized by continuous random
fluctuations in the magnitude and the direction of velocity of the
fluid particles.
Continuity Equation - Differential Form
Derivation
Consider an infinitesimal parallelopiped of space in a fluid body. Let the
sides of parallelopiped have length dx, dy and dz respectively. See Fig.
6.20. Let u, v and w be the inlet velocity components in the directions of
the X, Y and Z axes. Mass of the fluid entering the left face = ρu dy dz. Mass
of the fluid leaving the right face
Derivation
Velocity and Acceleration:
In the most general case of fluid motion, the
resultant velocity V at any point is a function
of not only the displacement s along a
stream line but also the time t, that is
Acceleration in the X-direction
Streamlines
are the Geometrical representation of the flow velocity.
In the Eulerian method, the velocity vector is defined as a function of time
and space coordinates.
If for a fixed instant of time, a space curve is drawn so that it is tangent
everywhere to the velocity vector, then this curve is called a Streamline.
Therefore, the Eulerian method gives a series of instantaneous streamlines
of the state of motion
Alternative Definition:
A streamline at any instant can be defined as an imaginary curve or line in
the flow field so that the tangent to the curve at any point represents the
direction of the instantaneous velocity at that point.
In an unsteady flow where the velocity vector changes with time, the
pattern of streamlines also changes from instant to instant.
In a steady flow, the orientation or the pattern of streamlines will be fixed.
Stream tube:
A bundle of neighboring streamlines may be imagined to form a passage
through which the fluid flows. This passage is known as a stream-tube.
Properties of Stream tube:
1. The stream-tube is bounded on all sides by streamlines.
2. Fluid velocity does not exist across a streamline, no fluid may
enter or leave a stream-tube except through its ends.
3. The entire flow in a flow field may be imagined to be
composed of flows through stream tubes arranged in some
arbitrary positions
Physical Concept of a Stream Function
Let us consider a two-dimensional steady incompressible
flow. Fig. 6.26 shows two stream lines PP’ and QQ’ close
to each other.
We know a stream line is a line of constant stream
function. Let the coordinates of P and Q be (x, y) and [(x +
dx), (y + dy)].
Consider the flow across any line from P to Q say a line
PRQ. If the flow is steady, the flow across the line PRQ or Hence dΨ numerically represents the flow across the line
any such line should be the same. Consider the flow PRQ, i.e., dΨ represents the flow between the stream
towards the positive direction of X as positive and the flow lines PP’ and QQ’. Thus, we conclude that the flow across
towards the positive direction of Y as positive, we have,
the flow across the line PRQ = – udy + vdx a line joining two points is equal to the change in the
stream function between these two points.
Path Lines
is the trajectory of a fluid particle of fixed identity
A family of path lines represents the trajectories of different
particles, say, P1, P 2, P3, etc.
basic types of line patterns
A streamline is a line everywhere tangent to the velocity vector at a given
instant or is a curve that is everywhere tangent to the instantaneous local
velocity vector.
A pathline is the actual path traversed by a given fluid particle or is the actual
path traveled by an individual fluid particle over some time period.
A streakline is the locus of particles that have earlier passed through a
prescribed point or is the locus of fluid particles that have passed sequentially
through a prescribed point in the flow.
A timeline is a set of fluid particles that form a line at a given instant.
The streamline is convenient to calculate mathematically
Note that a streamline and a timeline are instantaneous lines
the pathline and the streakline are generated by the passage of time
Streamlines are difficult to generate experimentally in unsteady flow unless
one marks a great many particles and notes their direction of motion
during a very short time interval
The most common method of flow-
pattern presentation: (a) Streamlines are
everywhere tangent to the local velocity
vector; (b) a stream tube is formed by a
closed collection of streamlines.
Differences between Path Line and
Stream Line
In a steady flow path lines are identical to streamlines as the
Eulerian and Lagrangian versions become the same
Circulation
Consider a closed line or contour in a two-dimensional
flow. Let V represent the resultant velocity at any point on
the contour. Let θ be the angle between the velocity V
and the elemental contour element ds. The integral of the
product (contour length ds x the component of the
velocity in the direction of ds) is called the line integral.
The line integral of the velocity around a closed contour
is called circulation (usually denoted by γ).
Circulation around the Sides of a
Rectangle
Vorticity and Irrotationality
If tangent to an imaginary
line at a point lying on it is in
the direction of the Vorticity
vector at that point , the line
is a vortex line.
The general equation of the
vortex line can be written as,
Vorticity is equal to twice the angular velocity of a fluid
particle
We define the angular velocity Angular velocity and strain rate
ωz about the z axis as the average of two fluid lines deforming in
rate of counterclockwise turning of the xy plane
the two lines.
derivatives
dα and dβ are each directly related to The vector ω = ivx + jvy + kvz is thus one-half the curl of the
velocity derivatives in the limit of small d velocity vector
Since the factor of 1/2 is annoying, many
workers prefer to use a vector twice as large,
Combining the two equation above gives the desired result called the vorticity
In exactly similar manner we determine the other two rates Many flows have negligible or zero vorticity
and are called irrotational:
Existence of Flow
We may also note that figure
above demonstrates the shear strain rate of Existence of Flow
the element, which is defined as the rate of
closure of the initially perpendicular lines: A fluid must obey the law of conservation of mass in course of
its flow as it is a material body.
For a Velocity field to exist in a fluid continuum, the velocity
components must obey the mass conservation principle.
Velocity components which follow the mass conservation
The vorticity is actually an anti symmetric tensor principle are said to constitute a possible fluid flow
and its three distinct elements transform like the Velocity components violating this principle, are said to
components of a vector in Cartesian coordinates describe an impossible flow.
The existence of a physically possible flow field is verified
This is why the vorticity components can be treated
as vectors. from the principle of conservation of mass.
rotation at a point:
defined as the arithmetic mean of the
angular velocities of two perpendicular 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑢
= − 𝑑𝑦 𝛾𝑥𝑦 = 0
linear segments meeting at that point 𝑑𝑥
𝒅𝜶 𝒅𝜷
The angular velocities of AB and AD about A are 𝒅𝒕 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒅𝒕 and 𝜔𝑧 =
respectively 𝛿𝑣 𝛿𝑢
= −
𝛿𝑥 𝑑𝑦
Considering the anticlockwise direction as positive, the Observation:
1 𝑑𝛼 𝑑𝛽
rotation at A can be written as, 𝜔𝑧 = 2 𝑑𝑡 − 𝑑𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝜔𝑧 = The linear segments AB and AD move with the same angular
1 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑢 velocity (both in magnitude and direction).
( − 𝑑𝑦) The included angle between them remains the same and no
2 𝑑𝑥
The suffix z in ω represents the rotation about z-axis. angular deformation takes place. This situation is known as
pure rotation.
When u = u (x, y) and v = v (x, y) the rotation and angular
deformation of a fluid element exist simultaneously.
Special case : Situation of pure Rotation
THE REYNOLDS TRANSPORT THEOREM
Reynolds transport theorem is
conversion
we must convert our mathematics to
apply to a specific region rather than to
individual masses
all the basics laws are concerned with
the time derivative of fluid properties
The desired conversion formula differs
slightly according to whether the
control volume is fixed, moving, or
deformable. Fixed, moving, and deformable control volumes: (a) fixed
control volume for nozzle stress analysis; (b) control volume
moving at ship speed for drag force analysis; (c) control
volume deforming within cylinder for transient pressure
variation analysis.
Arbitrary Fixed Control Volume
the instantaneous change of B in the system is the sum of the
change within, plus the outflow, minus the inflow:
An arbitrary control volume with an arbitrary
flow pattern This is the Reynolds transport theorem for an arbitrary fixed
control volume.
arbitrary control volume
helps us visualize what is being calculated
where dṁ = pVn is the differential mass flux through the surface
A second, alternative form offers elegance and compactness as
advantages. If n is defined as the outward normal unit vector
everywhere on the control surface, then V · n = Vn for outflow
for the fixed control volume since the volume
and V · n = −Vn for inflow. Therefore the flux terms can be
elements do not vary
represented by a single integral involving V · n that accounts for
both positive outflow and negative inflow:
The compact form of the Reynolds transport theorem is thus
Control Volume Moving at Constant
Velocity
an observer fixed to the control volume will see a relative
velocityVr of fluid crossing the control surface, defined by
The Reynolds transport theorem for this case of a uniformly
moving control volume is
EXAMPLE
A fixed control volume has three one-dimensional boundary sections, as
shown in figure. The flow within the control volume is steady. The flow
properties at each section are tabulated below. Find the rate of change
of energy of the system that occupies the control volume at this instant.
Conservation of Mass
This is the integral mass conservation law for a Suppose that the flow within the control volume is steady;
deformable control volume then ∂ρ/∂t ≡ 0
the inlets and outlets are one-
For a fixed control volume, dimensional, we have for steady flow
If the control volume has only a number of one-
dimensional inlets and outlets, we can write
the steady-flow–mass-conservation
relation (3.23) can be written as
the steady-flow–mass-conservation relation (3.23)
can be written as
If the inlets and outlets are not one-dimensional, one has to
compute ṁ by integration over the section
The theorem states that "the time rate of increase of
property N within a control mass system is equal to the time
rate of increase of property N within the control volume plus
the net rate of efflux of the property N across the control
surface”.