IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES (BCV602)

MODULE 4 – EARTH DAMS

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Earth dams, also known as embankment or earthfill dams, are water impounding structures built

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using compacted earth, rock, and sometimes concrete, often used for water storage and other
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purposes.
An earth dam is a type of dam built using compacted soil, clay, sand, and gravel to create a
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barrier that holds back water. These dams are widely used due to their cost-effectiveness,
adaptability, and ability to be constructed with locally available materials.
Earth dams are essential for irrigation, water supply, flood control, and hydroelectric power
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generation. Understanding their design, construction, types, advantages, and challenges is crucial
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for civil engineering students.

An embankment dam is a large artificial dam. It is typically created by the placement and
compaction of a complex semi-plastic mound of various compositions of soil, sand, clay, or rock.
It has a semi-pervious waterproof natural covering for its surface and a dense, impervious core.
This makes such a dam impervious to surface or seepage erosion. Such a dam is composed of
fragmented independent material particles. The friction and interaction of particles binds the
particles together into a stable mass rather than by the use of a cementing substance.
Construction and Materials:
• Natural Materials: Earth dams are constructed by placing and compacting successive
layers of natural soil or rocky materials.
• Versatile: They can be built in a variety of terrains and are a versatile option for dam

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construction.
Types:
• Earthfill dams: Primarily made of compacted earth.
• Rockfill dams: Constructed mainly from dumped and compacted rock fill, often
with an impermeable core or layer.
Examples:
• Tarbela Dam: One of the largest earth-and-rock fill dams in the world.
Location: Haripur District, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan
River: Indus River
Significance: One of the largest earth-and-rock fill dams in the world, primarily

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used for hydroelectric power generation and irrigation.

• Fort Peck Dam: One of the largest earthfill dams in the world.
Location: Montana, United States
River: Missouri River
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Significance: One of the largest earthfill dams in the world, built by the U.S.
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Army Corps of Engineers for flood control, irrigation, and hydropower.

• Oahe Dam: The largest rolled earth dam in the world.

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Location: South Dakota, United States

River: Missouri River
Significance: The largest rolled earth dam in the world, forming Lake Oahe,
which is used for power generation, recreation, and flood control.
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• Atatürk Dam: One of the largest dams in the country and ranks sixth amongst the
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largest earth-and-rock fill embankment dams in the world.

Location: Şanlıurfa and Adıyaman Provinces, Turkey
River: Euphrates River
Significance: One of Turkey’s largest dams, ranking sixth among the world’s
largest earth-and-rock fill embankment dams, and plays a key role in irrigation
and hydroelectric power.

• Ghod Dam: An earthfill dam on the Ghod River near Shirur, Pune district in the
state of Maharashtra in India.
Location: Shirur, Pune district, Maharashtra, India
River: Ghod River
Significance: An earthfill dam providing water for irrigation and drinking
purposes in Maharashtra.

• Dhom Dam: An earthfill and gravity dam on Krishna River near Wai.
Location: Wai, Satara district, Maharashtra, India

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River: Krishna River

Significance: A combination of earthfill and gravity dam, used for irrigation,
water supply, and hydroelectric power.

• Azad Dam: An earthen dam with a clay core.

Location: Iran
River: Sirvan River
Significance: An earthen dam with a clay core, used for hydroelectric power
generation and irrigation.

• Ataköy Dam: An earth-fill dam in Tokat Province, Turkey.

Location: Tokat Province, Turkey
River: Kelkit River

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Significance: An earth-fill dam providing water for irrigation and flood control in
the Tokat region.

Advantages:
•
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Cost-effective: Earth dams can be a relatively inexpensive option for dam construction,
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especially in areas where local materials are readily available.
• Versatile: They can be built in a variety of terrains.
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Disadvantages:
• Seepage and Leakage: Earth dams can be susceptible to seepage and leakage, which can
compromise their structural integrity and water storage capacity.
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• Maintenance: They require regular maintenance to ensure their stability and prevent
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damage from erosion, weathering, and other factors.

• Compaction Issues: Improper compaction can lead to foundation weakness and potential
failure.
• Strong Water Flow: Strong water flow can cause damage to earthen dams, requiring
protective structures.
• Plant Growth: Plant growth on the dam can also cause problems.
Monitoring:
• Dam behavior should be monitored properly and continuously.
• Instrumentation data should be analyzed to assess the dam's performance and identify
potential issues.

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IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES (BCV602)

TYPES OF EARTH DAMS: Embankment dams come in two types: the earth-filled dam
(also called an earthen dam or terrain dam) made of compacted earth, and the rock-filled
dam. A cross-section of an embankment dam shows a shape like a bank, or hill. Most have
a central section or core composed of an impermeable material to stop water from seeping
through the dam. The core can be of clay, concrete, or asphalt concrete. This dam type is a
good choice for sites with wide valleys. They can be built on hard rock or softer soils. For a
rock-fill dam, rock-fill is blasted using explosives to break the rock. Additionally, the rock
pieces may need to be crushed into smaller grades to get the right range of size for use in an
embankment dam

Earth dams are embankment dams made primarily of compacted soil. They are widely used for
water retention, flood control, and irrigation. The main types of earth dams include:

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1. Homogeneous Earth Dam
• Made of a single type of soil throughout.
• Simple construction and cost-effective.

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• Requires a long seepage path to prevent water loss.
• Used when suitable soil is available in large quantities.
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2. Zoned Earth Dam

• Has different zones made of various soil types.
• Typically consists of an impermeable core, surrounded by more permeable zones.
• Offers better control over seepage and stability.
• Commonly used in large dams.

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3. Diaphragm Earth Dam

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Contains a thin impermeable core (diaphragm) of clay, concrete, or asphalt.
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• The diaphragm controls seepage while the rest of the dam provides stability.
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• Suitable for areas with limited clay availability.

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4. Rolled Fill Earth Dam

• Constructed by compacting successive layers of soil.

• Ensures high density and strength.

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• Provides better stability and resistance to settlement.

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5. Hydraulic Fill Earth Dam
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A hydraulic fill earth dam is an embankment dam built using materials, often dredged, that
are conveyed and placed by suspension in flowing water, forming a compacted, impervious
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core.

• Built using water to transport and deposit soil materials.

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• The fine materials settle to form an impermeable barrier.

• Used in cases where conventional compaction is difficult.

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Each type has its own advantages and is chosen based on factors such as soil availability,
topography, and required water retention capacity. Let me know if you need more details
on any type!

The building of a dam and the filling of the reservoir behind it places a new weight on the
floor and sides of a valley. The stress of the water increases linearly with its depth. Water
also pushes against the upstream face of the dam, a nonrigid structure that under stress
behaves semiplastically, and causes greater need for adjustment (flexibility) near the base
of the dam than at shallower water levels. Thus the stress level of the dam must be
calculated in advance of building to ensure that its break level threshold is not exceeded.
Overtopping or overflow of an embankment dam beyond its spillway capacity will
cause its eventual failure. The erosion of the dam's material by overtopping runoff will
remove masses of material whose weight holds the dam in place and against the hydraulic
forces acting to move the dam. Even a small sustained overtopping flow can remove

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thousands of tons of overburden soil from the mass of the dam within hours. The removal
of this mass unbalances the forces that stabilize the dam against its reservoir as the mass of
water still impounded behind the dam presses against the lightened mass of the
embankment, made lighter by surface erosion. As the mass of the dam erodes, the force
exerted by the reservoir begins to move the entire structure. The embankment, having
almost no elastic strength, would begin to break into separate pieces, allowing the
impounded reservoir water to flow between them, eroding and removing even more
material as it passes through. In the final stages of failure the remaining pieces of the
embankment would offer almost no resistance to the flow of the water and continue to
fracture into smaller and smaller sections of earth or rock until these would disintegrates
into a thick mud soup of earth, rocks and water.
Therefore, safety requirements for the spillway are high, and require it to be capable of
containing a maximum flood stage. It is common for its specifications to be written such

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that it can contain a five hundred year flood. Recently a number of embankment dam
overtopping protection systems have

been developed. These techniques include the concrete overtopping protection systems,
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timber cribs, sheet-piles, riprap and gabions, reinforced earth, minimum energy loss weirs,
embankment overflow stepped spillways and the precast concrete block protection systems.
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The two principal types of embankment dams are earth and rock-fill dams, depending on
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the predominant fill material used. Some generalized sections of earth dams showing
typical zoning for different types and quantities of fill materials When practically only one
impervious material is available and the height of the dam is relatively low, a homogeneous
dam with internal drain. The inclined drain serves to prevent the downstream slope from
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becoming saturated and susceptible to piping and/or slope failure and to intercept and
prevent piping through any horizontal cracks traversing the width of the embankment.
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Earth Dam with impervious cores, are constructed when local borrow materials do not
provide adequate quantities of impervious material. A vertical core located near the center
of the dam is preferred over an inclined upstream core because the former provides higher
contact pressure between the core and foundation to prevent leakage, greater stability under
earthquake loading, and better access for remedial seepage control. An inclined upstream
core allows the downstream portion of the embankment to be placed first and the core later
and reduces the possibility of hydraulic fracturing. However, for high dams in steep-walled
canyons the overriding consideration is the abutment topography. The objective is to fit the
core to the topography in such a way to avoid divergence, abrupt topographic
discontinuities, and serious geologic defects. For dams on pervious foundations,seepage
control is necessary to prevent excessive uplift pressures and piping through the
foundation.

The methods for control of under seepage in dam foundations are horizontal drains, cutoffs
(compacted backfill trenches, slurry walls, and concrete walls), upstream impervious

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blankets, downstream seepage berms, toe drains, and relief wells.A rock-fill dam with steep
slopes requires better foundation conditions than an earth dam, and a concrete dam (or
roller-compacted concrete dam) requires better foundation conditions than a rock-fill dam.

An earth dam is composed of suitable soils obtained from borrow areas or required
excavation and compacted in layers by mechanical means. Following preparation of a
foundation, earth from borrows areas and from required excavations is transported to the
site, dumped, and spread in layers of required depth. The soil layers are then compacted by
tamping rollers; sheep foot rollers, heavy pneumatic-tired rollers, vibratory rollers, tractors,
or earth-hauling equipment. One advantage of an earth dam is that it can be adapted to a
weak foundation, provided proper consideration is given to thorough foundation
exploration, testing, and design.

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Phreatic Line and Horizontal Drain In Earth fill Dams

Earth dams are generally built of locally available materials in their natural state with a

material is economically available. C

minimum of processing. Homogeneous earth dams are built whenever only one type of

The material must be sufficiently impervious to provide an adequate water barrier and
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slopes must be relatively flat to make it safe against piping and sloughing.
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The general design procedure is to make a first estimate on the basis of experience with
similar dams and then to modify the estimate as required after conducting a stability
analysis except where there is a
surplus of material.
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The upstream slopes of most of the earth dams in actual practice usually vary from 2.0
(horizontal):1 (vertical) to 4:1 and the downstream slopes are generally between 2:1 and
3:1 (USBR 2003). Free board depends on the height and action of waves. USBR (2003)
recommends normal free-board about 1.5 to 3 m depending on the fetch. The width of the
dam crest is determined by considering the nature of embankment materials, height and
importance of structure, possible roadways requirements, and practicability of construction.
A majority of dams have the crest widths varying between 5 and 12 m.
About 30% of dams had failed due to the seepage failure, viz piping and sloughing. Recent
comprehensive reviews by Foster et al. (2000a,b) and Fell et al. (2003) show that internal
erosion and piping are the main causes of failure and accidents affecting embankment
dams; and the proportion of their failures by piping increased from 43% before 1950 to
54% after 1950. The sloughing of the downstream face of a homogeneous earth dam occurs
under the steady-state seepage condition due to the softening and weakening of the soil
mass when the top flow line or phreatic line intersects it. Regardless of flatness of the
downstream slope and impermeability of soil, the phreatic line intersects the downstream
face to a height of roughly one-third the depth of water . It is usual practice to use a

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modified homogeneous section in which an internal drainage system in the form of a

horizontal blanket drain or a rock toe or a combination of the two is provided. The drainage
system keeps the phreatic line well within the body of the dam. Horizontal filtered drainage
blankets are widely used for dams of moderate [Link] constructed the 50 m high
Vega dam, which is one of the highest with a homogenous section and a horizontal
downstream drain.

The minimum length of the horizontal blanket drain required to keep the phreatic line
within the body of the dam by a specified depth and also equations for maximum
downstream slope cover and minimum and maximum effective lengths of the downstream
filtered drainage system.

The position of the phreatic line influences the stability of the earth dam because of

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potential piping due to excessive exit gradient and sloughing due to the softening and
weakening of the soil mass as if it touches the downstream slope or intersects it. When the
dam embankment is homogeneous or when the downstream zone is of questionable
permeability, a horizontal drainage blanket is provided to keep the phreatic line well within

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the dam body, to allow adequate embankment and foundation drainage, and to eliminate
piping from the foundation and the embankment.
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As the dams are made of fine-grained soil, saturation may occur due to the capillary rise
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above the phreatic surface so it is necessary to account for capillary rise while calculating
the minimum length of the downstream filtered drainage. Though the suction head in the
soil matrix above the phreatic surface within the dam body due to capillary rise generally
improves the stability of the downstream slope, once the capillary fringe intersects the
downstream slope the pressure changes from negative (suction) to atmospheric and the
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downstream face may become a seepage face leading to its failure. Hence the phreatic line
should not intersect the downstream slope and it should be a distance greater than capillary
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rise below the sloping face so that the chances of the sloughing or piping may be nullified.

Stability and Failure of Earth Filled Dams

Failure of earth dams may be:
1. Hydraulic Failure
2. Seepage Failure
3. Structural Failure

1. Hydraulic Failure:

1. Overtopping of dams
2. Erosion of the Upstream Surface
3. Erosion of the Downstream Surface
4. Erosion of the Downstream toe

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i. Overtopping of dams:
This type of dam is made up of only one type of material. Usually porous materials is used.
These dams are easy and cheap to construct but cannot be used to make multipurpose large
dams. For large multipurpose dams zoned type method is used. Over topping failures result
from the erosive action of water on the embankment. Erosion is due to un-controlled flow
of water over, around, and adjacent to the dam. Earth embankments are not designed to be
over-topped and therefore are particularly susceptible to erosion. Once erosion has begun
during over-topping, it is almost impossible to stop. A well vegetated earth embankment
may withstand limited over topping if its crest is level and water flows over the crest and
down the face as an evenly distributed sheet without becoming concentrated. The owner
should closely monitor the reservoir pool level during severe storms.

ii. Erosion of the Upstream Surface:

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Here zones of different materials are made.
Shell is used to give support and stability to the structure of dam. It is made of coarse
materials and is pervious in nature.
Core is used to make the dam water tight and to reduce the seepage. Fine material is
used here. Used in large dams.
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iii. Erosion of the Downstream Surface:
Due to rainfall, snow and winds the downstream surface of the dam also erodes. By
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providing a section of coarse materials here, this erosion can be reduced or prevented.

2. Seepage Failure:
All earth dams have seepage resulting from water permeating slowly through the dam and
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its foundation. Seepage must be controlled in both velocity and quantity. If uncontrolled, it
can progressively erode soil from the embankment or its foundation, resulting in rapid
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failure of the dam. Erosion of the soil begins at the downstream side of the embankment,
either in the dam proper or the foundation, progressively works toward the reservoir, and
eventually develops a direct connection to the reservoir. This phenomenon is known as
"piping." Piping action can be recognized by an increased seepage flow rate, the discharge
of muddy or discolored water, sinkholes on or near the embankment, or a whirlpool in the
reservoir. Once a whirlpool (eddy) is observed on the reservoir surface, complete failure of
the dam will probably follow in a matter of minutes. As with over topping, fully developed
piping is virtually impossible to control and will likely cause failure. Seepage can cause
slope failure by creating high pressures in the soil pores or by saturating the slope. The
pressure of seepage within an embankment is difficult to determine without proper
instrumentation. A slope which becomes saturated and develops slides may be showing
signs of excessive seepage pressure.

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Seepage failure of the dams is of the following types

1. Piping through the dam

2. Piping through the foundation
3. Conduit Leakage

1. Piping thorugh the dam: There are two kinds of forces acting on the downstream face
of the dam:
1. Weight of the material
2. Seepage Force

If the seepage force exceeds the weight of the material the water washes away the soil from
the plate and creates a hole in the ground. This hole deepens as more and more mateial is

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taken away from it and extends longitudinally, making a pipe hole called "Piping in the
dam".

3. Structural Failure:
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Structural failures can occur
in either the embankment or
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the appurtenances.
Structural failure of a
spillway, lake drain, or other
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appurtenance may lead to

failure of the
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embankment.
Cracking, settlement,
and slides are the more
common signs of structural
failure of embankments.
Large cracks in either an
appurtenance or the
embankment, major
settlement, and major slides
will require emergency
measures to ensure safety,
especially if these problems
occur suddenly. If this type
of situation occurs, the lake

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level should be lowered, the

appropriate state and local
authorities notified, and
professional advice
sought. If the
observer is uncertain as to the seriousness of the problem, the Division of Water should be
contacted immediately. The three types of failure previously described are often
interrelated in a complex manner. For example, uncontrolled seepage may weaken the soil
and lead to a structural failure.
A structural failure may shorten the seepage path and lead to a piping failure. Surface
erosion may result in structural failure.

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1. Failure of downstream face during steady seepage conditions

2. Failure of upstream face during sudden draw down

3. Failure due to sliding of foundation C

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4. damage due to burrowing animals
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5. Failure of dam due to earthquake

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1. Usually upper part of the dam is dry and the lower is saturated with water which gives
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rise to pore water pressure within the voids. Dam body is saturated - All pores / voids
are filled with water, pore water pressure is induced. Effective pressure reduces and
shear strength of soil decreases
2. When water is suddenly withdrawn or in other words if the level of water in the
reservoir reduces suddenly, the soil on the upstream face of the dam body may be
highly saturated and has pore water pressure that tries to destabilise the dam and if this
force is high enough, it can fail the dam.
3. If the shear strength of the soil on which the foundation is built is weak though the
foundation itself may be strong but due to weakness of the soil foundation may slide on
the sides and in some cases the foundation itself may be not able to resist the shear

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force that may have increased from normal due to any reason.
4. Burrowing animals - Small animals living in the holes and pits may have dug theri
holes anywhere in te dam body which may widen with the passage of time and can be
dangerous.
5. Earthquake

Minor defects such as cracks in the embankment may be the first visual sign of a major
problem which could lead to failure of the structure. The seriousness of all deficiencies
should be evaluated by someone experienced in dam design and construction. A qualified

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professional engineer can recommend appropriate permanent remedial measures.

CRITERIA FOR SAFE DESIGN OF EARTH DAM

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To ensure a safe earth dam design, consider hydraulic stability (preventing erosion and
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overtopping), seepage control (minimizing seepage and preventing piping), and structural
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stability (ensuring adequate bearing capacity and slope stability)

1. Stability Against Sliding

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• The dam must be stable under different loading conditions (dry, partially filled, and full
reservoir).
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• The Factor of Safety (FoS) against slope failure should be ≥ 1.5 for steady-state
conditions and ≥ 1.3 for rapid drawdown conditions.

• Stability analysis should be conducted for upstream and downstream slopes using limit
equilibrium methods (e.g., Bishop’s or Morgenstern-Price methods).

• Spillway Capacity: Design a spillway with sufficient capacity to safely pass the design
flood, preventing overtopping and potential embankment failure.

• Freeboard: Provide adequate freeboard (the vertical distance between the crest of the
dam and the maximum water level) to accommodate wave action and prevent
overtopping.

• Wave Action: Design the crest and upstream face to withstand wave action, potentially
using riprap or other protective measures.

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• Erosion Prevention: Protect the embankment from erosion due to wave action and
surface runoff using appropriate materials and slope protection measures.

2. Seepage Control

• Excessive seepage can cause piping, erosion, or instability.

• Proper impermeable cores or diaphragms should be used to minimize seepage.

• Filters and drainage layers must be provided to prevent internal erosion

• Impervious Core: Incorporate an impervious core (e.g., clay or concrete) to minimize

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seepage through the dam body and foundation.

• Seepage Line:

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Ensure the seepage line (the line of saturation within the dam) remains well within the
downstream face to prevent sloughing and piping.
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• Drains and Filters:
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Implement effective drainage systems (e.g., filter drains, toe drains, chimney drains) to
manage seepage and prevent the development of excessive pore water pressure.
• Piping Prevention:
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Design the dam and foundation to prevent piping, which is the process where water
erodes soil particles and creates channels through the dam or foundation.
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• Foundation Stability:
Assess the bearing capacity of the foundation soil and take measures to ensure stability,
such as using a cutoff wall or improving the foundation.

3. Freeboard Requirement

• The dam must have adequate freeboard (height above the maximum water level) to
prevent overtopping due to waves or flooding.

• Freeboard is typically 2.5 to 3 meters above the maximum water level.

4. Proper Zoning

• Zoned earth dams should have:

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o Impermeable core (clay or silt) to resist seepage.

o Transition zones to prevent mixing of materials.

o Outer shell (coarse materials) to provide structural stability.

5. Adequate Spillway Capacity

• The spillway must be able to handle extreme flood events without overtopping the
dam.

• Design should be based on Probable Maximum Flood (PMF) or Standard Project

Flood (SPF).

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6. Foundation Treatment

• Foundations must be strong and resistant to settlement.

• C
For weak foundations, measures like grouting, cutoff walls, or compaction should be
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applied.
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• Seepage beneath the dam should be controlled using cutoff trenches or grout
curtains.

7. Protection Against Erosion

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• Upstream slope protection: Riprap or concrete facing prevents wave erosion.

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• Downstream slope protection: Grass cover, rock armoring, or drainage blankets

prevent erosion due to rainfall or seepage.

8. Construction Quality Control

• Soil must be compacted in layers to achieve 95% or more of maximum dry density.

• Moisture content should be within the optimum range to ensure strength and stability.

• Field and laboratory testing (e.g., permeability tests, compaction tests) must be
performed.

9. Earthquake Stability (Seismic Considerations)

• In seismic zones, dams should be designed to withstand dynamic loading and

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liquefaction risks.

• Zoned embankments with wide bases are preferred for better seismic resistance.

10. Slope Stability: Design the embankment slopes to be stable under all loading
conditions, including construction, steady-state, and rapid drawdown.

• Bearing Capacity:

Ensure the foundation soil has adequate bearing capacity to support the weight of the
dam and the water load.

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• Settlement:

Account for potential settlement of the embankment and foundation and design the dam
accordingly.

• Earthquake Resistance: C
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Design the dam to withstand seismic forces, potentially using techniques like slope
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flattening or reinforcement.

• Material Selection:
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Use appropriate materials for the embankment, core, and other components,
considering their properties and performance under various conditions.
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OR

The essential requirements of the design of an earth dam are safe and stable structure at a
minimum construction and maintenance cost. The essential design criteria are
(i) Safe against overtopping during design flood by providing adequate\spillway and
outlet capacity,
(ii) Spillway be of sufficient capacity to pass peak flood by providing adequate spillway
and outlet capacity to pass peak flood,
(iii) Safe against overtopping by wave action providing adequate free board,

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(iv) Side slopes stable during construction and under all conditions of reservoir operation.
Upstream slope is safe against rapid drawdown conditions while the downstream slope is safe
against sloughing,
(v) Side slopes upstream and downstream are flat enough so that the shear stress-induced
in the foundation is within the shear strength of the material comprising the foundation with a
suitable factor of safety,
(vi) Upstream slope is protected against erosion by wave action while the crest and
downstream slope is protected against erosion due to wind and rain. Horizontal berms at suitable
intervals in upstream and downstream faces may be provided for this purpose,

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(vii) Downstream slope is safe during steady seepage under full reservoir condition,
(viii) Portion of the dam downstream of the impervious core is properly drained by the
provision of suitable drainage System,
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(ix) Seepage flow through the dam and foundation is so controlled that there is no danger
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of fine particles getting washed out from the downstream by the efflux of seepage. Moreover,
quantity of seepage loss is restricted to the minimum,
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(x) There is no possibility of free flow of water from upstream through either the dam or
the foundation,
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(xi) Adequate impervious core to act as water barrier. Top of impervious core is
maintained higher than the maximum reservoir level,
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(xii) Seepage line, i.e., phreatic line is well within the downstream face so that no
sloughing of the slope takes place,
(xiii) Seepage flow through the embankment, foundation and abutments is controlled so
that no internal erosion takes place. The amount of ater lost through seepage must be controlled
so that it does not interfere with planned project functions,
(xiv) Transition filters are incorporated to satisfy the two essential conditions of filters,
viz., to prevent choking of the filter by soil and have minimum of head loss in the filter,
(xv) Dam as a whole is earthquake resistant. The seismic conditions of the region
investigated with reference to geological map of vicinity. India has been divided into five sesmic
zones.

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Horizontal seismic coefficient for static in different zones, is taken as under:

Zone Horizontal Seismic

coefficient h

I 0.01

II 0.02

III 0.04

IV 0.05

V 0.08

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Vertical Seismic coefficient, where applicable, is taken as half horizontal seismic
coefficient as indicated above.

C
SEEPAGE THROUGH EARTH DAMS - GRAPHICAL METHOD
N
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In earth dam, the entire dam, except for the core, forms part of the drainage system.
Filters, made of select materials, allow the water to pass through and in turn the transition zones
do the same thing with respect to the filers. Finally, the shells are draining elements and the
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filtered water is channelled through them downstream shell. Those from the abutments are
channelled to the river bed in order to avoid surface erosion.
VT

Seepage through the earth dams is unavoidable. The reservoir water seeps through the
body of the dame or through its contact with foundation and abutments. The adverse effects of
seepage in earth dame are
1. Loss of reservoir storage capacity,
2. Sloughing of downstream toe due to saturation and progressive development of local
shear failures,
3. Weakening of soil strength as finer soil particles are moved through coarse particles
resulting in internal erosion or piping failure,
4. Foundation blow out due to excessive uplift, and
5. Reduction in effective strength of soil as seepage caused pore pressures.

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For the location of zones of seepage through reservoir foundation or dam embankment,
American groundwater consultants of New Mexico have developed a geophysical method known
as ZETA-SP. The method is based on the principle that water moving through porous earthen
materials creates an electrical field, the magnitude of which is proportional, among other things,
to the velocity of the water through earthen materials of the dam embankment or foundation of a
reservoir.

In this method, two electrodes are placed side by side in the water at one edge of the
reservoir so that they are at zero potentials. To begin measurements, while one electrode is kept

.IN
in that position, the other is moved to the remote shore and its potential relative to the stationary
electrode is measured at that point and at regular intervals as it is drawn across the bottom of the
reservoir towards the stationary electrode. The process is repeated from a number of different

C
points around the shore so that a potential grid of the reservoir bottom is derived. Zones of
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maximum potential are indicative of seepage.
The graphical method for analyzing seepage in earth dams is typically done using flow
SY

nets. A flow net is a graphical representation of how water moves through a porous medium,
such as an earth dam. The method consists of drawing flow lines and equipotential lines, which
together form a network of curvilinear squares. To analyze seepage in earth dams using a
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graphical method, you can utilize flow nets, which are graphical representations of flow paths
VT

and equipotential lines, to determine seepage discharge and pore water pressure distribution

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Steps to Construct a Flow Net for Seepage in an Earth Dam

1. Define the boundary conditions
o The upstream face of the dam is a constant head boundary (water level).
o The downstream face (if exposed) is a seepage face, where water exits.
o The impermeable base (or foundation) is a no-flow boundary.
2. Draw the base profile and phreatic surface
o The phreatic line (or seepage line) is the topmost streamline, representing where
the pressure is atmospheric.
o It can be estimated using Casagrande’s method or numerical solutions.

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3. Sketch flow lines
o Flow lines represent the paths water molecules take through the dam.
o They must start perpendicular to the upstream boundary and curve downward as
they pass through the dam. C
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4. Sketch equipotential lines
o Equipotential lines connect points of equal hydraulic head.
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o These lines must be perpendicular to flow lines.

5. Ensure curvilinear squares
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o Adjust the spacing so that the formed areas resemble squares (as much as
possible).
VT

o This ensures that flow is represented correctly.

6. Analyze the flow rate
o Use Darcy’s Law and the number of flow channels and drops to compute seepage
discharge.
o The discharge q is calculated using:

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Graphical Methods:
• Casagrande’s Method: Empirical method for estimating the phreatic line.
• Schaffernak’s Method: A simplified approach using an approximate shape of the
phreatic line.
• Kozeny’s Theory: A theoretical method for phreatic surface approximation. Flow Nets:
• Flow Nets:
• Flow Paths: These are lines representing the paths of water flow through the dam
and its foundation.
• Equipotential Lines: These lines represent points of equal hydraulic head,

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indicating the potential energy of the water flow.
• Construction: Flow nets are constructed by drawing orthogonal (at right angles)
flow paths and equipotential lines, ensuring a square or near-square shape where
they intersect. C
N
• Determining Seepage Discharge:
• The seepage discharge (Q) can be calculated using the following formula:
SY

Q = k * H * (Nf / Nd).
• Where:
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• k is the hydraulic conductivity of the soil.

• H is the total head difference.
VT

• Nf is the number of flow channels.

• Nd is the number of potential drops.
• Analyzing Pore Water Pressure:
• The equipotential lines help in determining the pore water pressure distribution
within the dam and its foundation.
• By knowing the hydraulic head along the equipotential lines, the pore water
pressure can be calculated at any point.
• Advantages of Graphical Method:
• Simplicity: The graphical method is relatively simple to understand and apply,
especially for homogeneous dams.

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• Visualization: It provides a clear visual representation of the seepage flow

pattern.
• Limitations of Graphical Method:
• Homogeneous Soil: The method is primarily suitable for homogeneous soils with
uniform hydraulic conductivity.
• Complexity: For complex dam geometries or soil conditions, the method can
become cumbersome.
• Alternative Methods:
• Finite Element Method (FEM): This numerical method is more suitable for

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complex geometries and soil conditions.
• Other Numerical Methods: Other numerical methods, such as the finite
difference method, can also be used for seepage analysis.
C
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SEEPAGE IN EARTH DAMS / SEEPAGE CONTROL MEASURES
The purpose of seepage control is to
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(i) Contribute to the stability of the dams and their foundations,

(ii) Effect reduction of the loss of water,
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(iii) Avert failure of the dam structure by piping, and

(iv) Excessive pore pressure in the dam.
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A Suitably designed internal drainage system is essentially required to meet these

requirements.
Control of Seepage Through Embankment: Impervious zones: It consists of a
watertight core(coefficient of permeability over 10−610−6 cm/s) protected on both sides
by filter, draining and transition zones. The most common section of an earth dam. The
core depicted is vertical and symmetrical. However, in practice, it is asymmetrical and
slanted but this arrangement does not modify the manner in which the drainage elements
next to it function. Impervious earth core checks the seepage through the embankment
and also enables the portion of dam downstream of the core to act as a drainage zone.

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1. Core : The core provides improbable barrier within the dam body. It may be located

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either centrally or inclined upstream.

C
N
SY
U
VT

Thin core
The core material normally has less shear strength than the rest of the embankment and
may further develop appreciable pore pressures. The location of core depends mainly on the
availability of materials, topography of site, foundation condition, diversion considerations etc.
Thickness is governed by

(i) Availability of impervious and filter materials,

(ii) Resistance to piping,
(iii) Permissible seepage through dam.

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Minimum thickness is 3m. Top-level of core is 1 m above, the maximum water level.
From stability consideration thinner core is better. A thin core with filter zone and pervious
shells develops negligible pore pressure. A core is considered thin if its width is less than 15 to
20 per cent of the water head. Theoretical mainimum volume for a thin core dam is obtained
when the core is so located that the upstream and downstream slopes have approximately the
same factor of safety. Thin core may be moderately slanting or central. A central core provides
higher pressures at the contact between the core and the foundation. Therby reducing the
possibily of leakage and piping. Core with thickness less than 10 per cent of the head is not used
except where a large leakage through the core would not lead to failure of the dam.

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The Advantages of thin core are
(i) Thin core with pervious shells has less unit cost os placement,
(ii) Smaller embankment volume,
C
(iii) Expeditious construction as lesser time is required for constructing thin impervious
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zone,
(iv) Lesser requirement of compaction equipment, and
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(v) Develops negligible pore pressures.

The disadvantages of thin core are that contact area between the core of the embankment
U

and rock is less and there is likelihood of leakage through thin core. However, this can be taken
care of to some extent by increasing the width of the core at junction with the rock to give wider
VT

contact area.
Thick Core:
A core with a width of 30 to 50 percent of the water head is considered as thick core. It is
usually central and has a steeper upstream slope and flatter downstream slope. It is suitable for
any type of soil and dam height. Thick core provided wider and better contact with the
foundation and offers more resistance to piping especially that which may develop due to
differential settlement cracks. Since the piping resistance of compacted embankment is largely a
result of soil properties, the minimum allowable core thickness depends on the plasticity and
gradation of the core.
An Ideal core, according to Cedergern, is that which is moderately slanting, sufficiently

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wide to eliminate very high gradients and yet confining seepage stresses to within the upstream
part of the section.

Having discussed thin and thick cores, it is pertinent to mention merits of vertical and sloping
cores.
Vertical Core:
A vertical core dam has a steeper upstream slope and a flatter downstream slope.
Advantages of vertical core are
(i) Higher pressure exist on the contact between the core and the foundation thereby

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reducing the possibility of leakage, and piping,
(ii) Slightly greater thickness of the core is obtained for a given quantity of impervious
soil,
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(iii) Central core permits carrying out of additional grouting from the crest of the dam
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after the is completed and without lowering the resevoir.
Sloping Core:
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A sloping core dam has steeper upstream and downstream slopes. Advantages of sloping
core are
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(i) Placement of main downstream portion of the embankment first and core placed later,
(ii) Foundation grouting can be carried out while the embankment is being placed,
VT

(iii) Filter layers on either side of the core can be made thinner and placed more
conveniently than vertical core dam,
(iv) Reduces the pore pressure in the downstream part of the dam and thereby increases
its safety,
(v) Allows use of relatively large volume of random material on the downstream.

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.IN
C
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SPILLWAY: A spillway is a structure that safely discharges excess water from a reservoir,
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preventing dam overtopping and potential failure, and comes in various types based on their
design and function. Common types include free overfall, ogee, side channel, chute, shaft,
siphon, cascade, and tunnel spillways.
U
VT

REQUIREMENTS OF A SPILLWAY
The spillway must have sufficient capacity. 2. It must be hydraulically and structurally adequate.
3. It must be so located that it provides safe disposal of water. 4. The bounding surfaces of
spillway must be erosion resistant. 5. Energy dissipater should be located in downstream side of
the spillway for dissipation of energy

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LOCATION OF SPILLWAY
• Within the body of the dam
• At one end of dam.
• Entirely away from it, independently in a saddle.
With in the body At one end Entirely away
Required spillway capacity
• Required spillway capacity is determined by flood routing.
• Spillway capacity should be equal to the maximum outflow rate determined by flood routing. It
requires the following data:

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i) inflow hydrograph( plot of rate of inflow Vs time)
ii) reservoir capacity curve( reservoir storage Vs reservoir water surface elevation)
iii) discharge curve( rate of outflow through spillway Vs reservoir water surface elevation)
C
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COMPONENT PARTS OF SPILLWAY
Approach channel Control structure Discharge carrier Discharge channel Energy
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dissipators
FACTORS AFFECTING THE REQUIRED SPILLWAY CAPACITY
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1. Inflow flood hydrograph

2. Available storage capacity
VT

3. Capacity of outlets
4. Gates of spillways
5. Possible damage, if the capacity is exceeded

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TYPES OF SPILLWAYS Spillways can be classified into different types based on various
criteria:
A. Classification based on purpose
1. Main or service spillway
2. Auxillary spillway
3. Emergency spillway
B. Classification based on control
1. Controlled or gated spillway

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2. Uncontrolled or ungated spillway
C. Classification based on prominent feature
1. free overfall (or straight drop)
2. overfall (or ogee spillway) C
N
3. chute (or open channel or trough)
4. side channel spillway
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5. shaft which (or morning glory)

6. siphon
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7. conduit (or tunnel)

TYPES OF SPILLWAYS
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Spillways can be classified into different types based on various criteria:

A. Classification based on purpose

1. Main or service spillway 2. Auxillary spillway 3. Emergency spillway

B. Classification based on control

1. Controlled or gated spillway 2. Uncontrolled or ungated spillway

C. Classification based on prominent feature

1. free overfall (or straight drop) 2. overfall (or ogee spillway)
3. chute (or open channel or trough) 4. side channel spillway
5. shaft which (or morning glory) 6. Siphon 7. conduit (or tunnel)

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Classification based on purpose

• Main spillway
A main(or service) spillway is the spillway designed to pass a prefixed or the design flood.
This spillway is necessary for all dams and in most of the dams, it is the only spillway.
• Auxiliary spillway
It is provided as a supplement to the main spillway and its crest is so located that it
comes into operation only after the floods for which the main spillway is designed are
exceeded.
Total spillway capacity (Q) = Qm + Qa , Where Q is the designed flood,

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Qm is the capacity of main spillway,
Qa is the capacity of the auxiliary spillway
• Emergency spillway

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It is provided in addition to the main spillway but it comes into operation only during emergency
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which may arise at any time.
Classification based on control
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• Controlled spillway
A controlled spillway is one which is provided with the gates over the crest to control the outflow
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from the reservoir.

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In the controlled spillway, the full reservoir level (F.R.L) of the reservoir is usually kept at the top
level of the gates. Thus the water can be stored up to the top level of the gates.

• Uncontrolled spillway
In an uncontrolled spillway the gates are not provided over the crest to control the outflow from
the reservoir.

The full reservoir level(F.R.L) is at the crest level of the spillway. The water escapes automatically when the
water level rises above the crest level.

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Classification based on prominent feature

1. Free overfall or straight drop spillway:

-In this type of spillway, the water freely drops down from the crest. It is a low weir and simple
vertical fall type structures.
-The water falls freely from the crest under the action of gravity.
-To prevent scouring at the downstream, an auxiliary dam of artificial pool is to be constructed at
the place of fall of water.
-This type of spillway is not recommended for high head since the vibrations of falling jet might
damage the structure.

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-To direct the small discharge away from the face of the overfall section the crest is extended to
form a overhanging clip

C
N
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VT

2. Ogee or overflow spillway

-It represents the S-shape curve so, it is called ogee spillway.
-It is an improved form of straight drop spillway.
-It is mainly used in gravity dams.
-It has got the advantage over other spillways for its high discharging efficiency.
-The overflow water is guided smoothly over the crest so that water do not break the contact with
the spillway surface.

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3. Side channel spillway

-The flow in this spillway is turned 90 ̊ after passing the crest such that the flow is parallel to the
weir crest.
-Best suitable for non rigid dams like earthen dams.
-It is preferred where space is not available for providing sufficient crest width for chute spillway.
-The discharge carrier may be an open channel type or a conduit type.

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C
N
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4. chute (or open channel or trough)

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-It is often called as trough or open channel spillway.

VT

-For earthen and rockfill dams, spillway is to be constructed separately away from the main valley.
-Chute Spillway is the simplest type of a spillway which can be easily provided independently and
at low costs.
-It is lighter and adaptable to any type of foundations.

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5. shaft which (or morning glory)

-The water from the reservoir enters into a vertical shaft which conveys this water into a horizontal
tunnel which finally discharges the water into the river downstream.
-This type of spillway is preferred where the space is not available for providing the above type of
spillways
-If the inlet leg is provided in shape of a funnel, it is called Morning Glory Spillway.
-It has maximum even at low heads.

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C
N
SY

6. Siphon
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-It works on the principle of syphonic action.

VT

-It consists of a syphon pipe whose inlet leg is kept just below the normal pool level and an air
vent kept at normal pool level is connected to the crown of syphon.
-When the water raises the pool level, syphonic action starts automatically and the water
discharges to downstream side.
-When the water level falls below the pool level, air is entered through air vent and the discharging
of water stops.

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7. conduit (or tunnel)

- A conduit Spill-way consist of a closed conduit to carry the flood discharge to the downstream
channel . It is constructed in the abutment or under the dam .

- The closed conduit may take the form of a vertical or inclined shaft, a horizontal tunnel, or a
conduit constructed in an open cut and then covered.

- To ensure the free flow in the tunnel, the ratio of flow area to total tunnel area is often limited to
75%of air vents are provided.

- Such a spill-way is suitable for dam sites in narrow canyons with steep abutments.

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C
N
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VT

Ogee profile
Ogee profile is acceptable as it provide
-maximum possible hydraulic efficiency
-structural stability and economy and
-avoid the formation of objectionable sub atmospheric pressures at surface

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In the ogee- shaped spillway the nappe-shaped profile is an ideal profile because at the design
head, the water flowing over the crest of the spillway always remains in contact with the surface of
the spillway as it glides over it.

For this shape, no negative pressure will develop on the spillway surface at the design head.
Shape of the crest of the overflow spillway:
The shape of the ogee-shaped spillway depends upon a number of factors such as

1. Head over the crest

2. Height of the spillway above the stream bed or the bed of the entrance channel

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3. The inclination of the upstream face of the spillway
DESIGN PRINCIPLES OF OGEE SPILLWAY
Design criteria of downstream profile
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The d/s profile of the spillway can be represented by the following equation:
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VT

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xn=KH
d
n-1

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C
N
Where x and y are the coordinates of the point on the spillway surface, with the origin at the
highest point O of the crest,
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Hd is the design head, excluding the head due to the velocity of approach,
K and n are constants, depends upon the inclination of the upstream face of the spillway
Design criteria of upstream profile
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-To ensure that there is no discontinuity along the surface of flow the u/s profile should have zero
VT

slope at the crest axis.

-According to latest analytical studies of U.S army u/s curve of ogee shape has the equation:

-It should be noted that u/s curve at crest should neither be made too sharp nor too broad.
-Broad crest supports the lower nappe, produces positive hydrostatic pressure & reduces discharge.
-If the curve is sharp the nappe leave the ogee profile, causing negative pressure & cavitation and
increases discharge.

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High overflow spillway

Overflow or ogee spillways are classified as high & low depending on ratio

• Head (H): the distance between water surface to the crest axis.

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Design head (Hd): it is the value of head for which ogee profile is designed.

• Head due to velocity approach (Ha): it is the velocity head given by Ha=Va2/2g

• C
Total energy head (He): it is equal to the actual head plus the head due to velocity approach.
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He = H + Ha if H=Hd, Hed = Hd + Ha
Discharge computation for an ogee spillway
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The discharge over an ogee spillway is computed from the basic equation of flow over weirs, given below:
U

Q = CdLeHe3/2
VT

Where, Q is discharge(cumecs), Cd is the coefficient of discharge, Le is the effective length

He is the actual effective head including the head due to the velocity of
approach, i.e. He=Hd+Ha.

Effective length of crest:

The effective length of crest of an overflow spillway is given by

Le = L’ – 2(NKp + Ka) He

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Where Le is the effective length of crest, L’ is the net length of crest,

He is the actual total head of flow on crest, N is the number of piers,
Kp is the pier contraction coefficient,
Ka is the abutment contraction coefficient

✓ Problems 1.

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C
N
SY
U
VT

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C
N
SY
U
VT

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C
N
SY
U
VT

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2.

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C
N
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VT

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IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES (BCV602)

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Dhanashree N Nerlikar [Link] Dept. of Civil Engg. VVIT Bangalore

Studied smart, not hard — thanks to [Link]
IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES (BCV602)

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Dhanashree N Nerlikar [Link] Dept. of Civil Engg. VVIT Bangalore

Studied smart, not hard — thanks to [Link]
IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES (BCV602)

TYPES OF SPILLWAY GATES

Gates are placed to control the flow of water from the crest. This gives the spillway a controlled spillway.
A spillway without gate is called an uncontrolled spillway.

1. Flash boards, stop logs and needles

2. Radial gates
3. Drum gates
4. Vertical lift gates
5. Bear trap gates

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6. Rolling gates
Flash boards:
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-Flash boards are wooden boards or panels, placed side by side, on the crest of the spillways to form a
continuous shutter.
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-These are simplest and oldest types of gates.

-These are quite efficient and economical for small heights where they can be readily handled by the lifting
arrangements.
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-The flash boards can be temporary or permanent.

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Dhanashree N Nerlikar [Link] Dept. of Civil Engg. VVIT Bangalore

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IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES (BCV602)

Stop logs:
-Stop logs are horizontal wooden timber beams which span the space between grooved piers
constructed on the crest of the spillway.
-Stoplogs are pushed down into the grooves from top, one over the other.
-The logs may be raised by hands or with a hoist.
-Stoplogs are generally used for small spillways.

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Needles:
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-Needles are wooden logs placed in an inclined position, with their lower ends resting in a keyway on the
spillway crest and their upper ends supported on a bridge.
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-These are placed and removed by hands.

-Needles are somewhat easier to remove than stop logs, but are more difficult to place in flowing water.
-Needles are also used for small spillways and weirs.

Dhanashree N Nerlikar [Link] Dept. of Civil Engg. VVIT Bangalore

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IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES (BCV602)

Radial gates:
-A tainter gate(or radial gate) has the upstream face cylindrical. The axis of the segment of the
cylinder forming the u/s face is horizontal.
-The face is formed of a steel skin plate shaped to a segment of a hollow cylinder supported on a
steel framework.
-Radial gates have a number of advantages over the vertical gates and are quite popular. The
friction in the radial gates is concentrated at the pins and is usually much less than that in the
vertical gates.
-Because of the face of radial gates is cylinder, the water pressure acts normal to the face and the
resultant water pressure passes through its centre.

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-These gates have been used up to 15m height and 20m span.
-These are usually more economical than the vertical gates of the same size.

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Radial gates
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Drum gates:
-A drum gate consists of a segment of cylinder of such a shape that when the gate is in the lowered
position, it fits in a recess made in the top portion of the spillway, and the flood water passes over it.
-The drum gates is formed by fixing skin plates to an internal bracing systems. It is hinged on its
upstream edge at the centre of curvature to the spillway crest.
-This type of gate can also be designed for automatic operation. Drum gates are suitable for long spans
with moderate heights.

Dhanashree N Nerlikar [Link] Dept. of Civil Engg. VVIT Bangalore

Studied smart, not hard — thanks to [Link]
IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES (BCV602)

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Drum gates
Vertical lift gates:
-Vertical rectangular gates are commonly used for spillways.
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-A vertical lift gate consists of a vertical framework fabricated of steel members.

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-A steel skin plate is fixed on the upstream side of the steel framework. The vertical gate can move
vertically on its own plane in the grooves provided in piers.
-The vertical gates are raised or lowered by a hoisting arrangement through cables attached to them.
These gates are usually provided with counterweights to reduce the lifting force.

The vertical gates are mainly of the following types:

Sliding gates
Stoney gates
fixed- wheel gates

Dhanashree N Nerlikar [Link] Dept. of Civil Engg. VVIT Bangalore

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IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES (BCV602)

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Bear trap gates:
-Bear trap gates are also known as movable drum gates.

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-A bear trap gate consists of two leaves of steel, with one leaf hinged on the upstream side and the other
on the downstream side over the crest.
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-The bear trap gates are suitable for low navigation dams.
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-These gates have a wide base but a deep recess is not required.
-These gates may be designed to operate automatically.
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Dhanashree N Nerlikar [Link] Dept. of Civil Engg. VVIT Bangalore

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 IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES (BCV602)

ENERGY DISSIPATERS AND STILLING BASINS

Energy dissipaters are hydraulic structures used to reduce the kinetic energy of high-velocity flows,
particularly at dam spillways and culverts, to prevent downstream erosion.
A stilling basin is a specially designed structure that facilitates the formation of a hydraulic jump to
dissipate energy before water flows into the downstream channel safely.
Hydraulic Jump and Its Importance
A hydraulic jump occurs when high-velocity supercritical flow transitions into subcritical flow,
causing a sudden rise in water depth. This transition effectively dissipates the excess energy.
Jump Height Curve:The jump height curve defines the height difference between the sequent

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depths of a hydraulic [Link] is used in designing stilling basins to ensure proper energy dissipation.
Tail Water Rating Curve:The tail water rating curve describes the relationship between discharge
and tailwater [Link] helps determine whether a free jump, submerged jump, or drowned jump
will occur.
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Types of Stilling Basins

USBR (U.S. Bureau of Reclamation) Stilling Basins
USBR developed four types of stilling basins based on different flow conditions:
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USBR Type I:
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Used for small and medium flows.

Contains chute blocks, baffle blocks, and an end sill.
Ensures stable hydraulic jump formation
USBR Type II:
Suitable for medium discharges.
Uses baffle blocks and an end sill to slow the flow.
USBR Type III:
Used for high-energy dissipation.
Eliminates chute blocks but retains baffle blocks and sills.
USBR Type IV:
Designed for high-velocity jets.
Uses impact walls for effective dissipation

Dhanashree N Nerlikar [Link] Dept. of Civil Engg. VVIT Bangalore

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 IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES (BCV602)

Indian Stilling Basins

Indian designs follow the IS Code (IS 4997:1968) and consider regional conditions. Types include:
Basin with Baffle Blocks – Used for moderate energy dissipation.
Basin with Slotted Sills – Used for high discharges.
Impact Basins – Used for low-flow conditions.
Diagram of a Stilling Basin with Hydraulic Jump

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Here is a diagram illustrating a stilling basin with a hydraulic jump, created using DALL·E, OpenAI’s
image generation model. It highlights key components like supercritical flow, chute blocks, baffle
blocks, an end sill, and the transition to subcritical flow.

DHANASHREE N NERLIKAR, Assistant professor, VVIT, BANGALORE Page 50

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 IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES (BCV602)

Significance of Jump Height Curve and Tail Water Rating Curve

Energy dissipation in hydraulic structures is crucial for preventing erosion and infrastructure damage.
Two essential curves in this process are the Jump Height Curve and the Tail Water Rating Curve.
They help engineers design efficient stilling basins and other energy dissipaters.
Jump Height Curve: The Jump Height Curve represents the height difference between the initial
and sequent depths of a hydraulic jump. It helps engineers determine the effectiveness of energy
dissipation in a stilling basin.
Mathematical Expression
The hydraulic jump occurs when a supercritical flow (high velocity, low depth) transitions into a

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subcritical flow (low velocity, high depth), leading to a sudden rise in water depth.
The relationship between the sequent depths is given by the Belanger equation:

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Significance
Determines Jump Characteristics: Helps in understanding the length and intensity of the hydraulic
jump.
Aids in Energy Dissipation Design: Ensures proper placement of chute blocks, baffle blocks, and
end sills.
Prevents Scouring: A well-designed jump reduces the risk of downstream erosion.
Optimizes Basin Length: Engineers can design a compact stilling basin that effectively dissipates
energy.

Tail Water Rating Curve: The Tail Water Rating Curve defines the relationship between the
discharge (Q) and the tailwater depth (Yₜ) in the downstream channel.
Mathematical Expression
DHANASHREE N NERLIKAR, Assistant professor, VVIT, BANGALORE Page 51

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 IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES (BCV602)

It is typically expressed as:

Significance
Ensures Proper Hydraulic Jump Formation: The tailwater depth must be sufficient to allow a

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stable jump; otherwise, it may be drowned or ineffective.

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Prevents Structural Damage: If tailwater depth is too low, excessive scour may occur. If too high,
the jump may not form properly.
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Stilling Basin Efficiency: Helps in designing the stilling basin to match actual flow conditions.

Hydraulic Jump Classification:

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Free Jump: Forms when tailwater depth is just right.

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Submerged Jump: Occurs when tailwater is too high.

Drowned Jump: Happens when excessive tailwater suppresses the jump.
Jump Height Curve ensures the proper energy dissipation within the basin.
Tail Water Rating Curve helps in aligning the downstream water depth to allow a stable hydraulic
[Link], they are essential for the safe and efficient operation of hydraulic structures like
stilling basins, spillways, and river control systems.

DHANASHREE N NERLIKAR, Assistant professor, VVIT, BANGALORE Page 52

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 IRRIGATION ENGINEERING AND HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES (BCV602)

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Here is a diagram illustrating the Jump Height Curve and Tail Water Rating [Link] includes graphs
showing the relationship between initial and sequent depths, as well as discharge versus tailwater
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depth.
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DHANASHREE N NERLIKAR, Assistant professor, VVIT, BANGALORE Page 53

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