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Biomimetic armour design strategies for additive manufacturing: A review

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 Materials & Design 205 (2021) 109730

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Materials & Design

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Biomimetic armour design strategies for additive manufacturing: A

review
Muhammed Kamrul Islam, Paul J. Hazell ⇑, Juan P. Escobedo, Hongxu Wang
School of Engineering and Information Technology, The University of New South Wales, Canberra ACT 2600, Australia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Nature has a wide range of biological protection strategies that show resilience to impact loading. These
Received 17 November 2020 strategies also serve a certain amount of flexibility that contribute to body movement and locomotion.
Revised 29 March 2021 Consequently, researchers have developed biomimetic engineering structures emulating natural strategies.
Accepted 11 April 2021
However, biological entities are often complex and are difficult to replicate with conventional manufacturing
Available online 14 April 2021
technologies. Recent advances in additive manufacturing provide a pathway to emulate the hierarchical
architectures of biological materials. In this review paper, we consider biological structures from marine
Keywords:
and terrestrial animals that safeguard their body parts from external attack. We also discuss biological struc-
Biological structures
Biomimetics
tures that are not employed for protective purposes but provide flexibility and have damage tolerant prop-
Armour erties suitable for developing strong, tough and lightweight bioinspired armour. Mobility and protection
Protection strategies have been considered to enhance the development of bio-inspired designs. Moreover, we discuss
Design how additive manufacturing can be incorporated in the biomimicry design process.
Additive manufacturing Ó 2021 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license
([Link]

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2. Biomimetics for defensive designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.1. Biomimetics for high-velocity collision protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.1.1. Nacre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.1.2. Turtle shells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.2. Biomimetics for low-velocity blunt-impact loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2.1. Hooves and horn. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2.2. Beetle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2.3. Conch shell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.3. Biomimetics for sharp impact loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.3.1. Crocodile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.4. Biomimetics for mobility and movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.4.1. Fish scale. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.4.2. Seahorse tail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.4.3. Pangolins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.4.4. Armadillo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3. Biomimetic structures in AM. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4. Biomimicry design and its perspectives using AM. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
5. Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Declaration of Competing Interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [Link]@[Link] (P.J. Hazell).

[Link]
0264-1275/Ó 2021 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd.
This is an open access article under the CC BY license ([Link]
Muhammed Kamrul Islam, P.J. Hazell, J.P. Escobedo et al. Materials & Design 205 (2021) 109730

Fig. 1. Toughness and stiffness relationship of engineering and biological materials [10].

1. Introduction that serve protection and flexibility. Osteoderms are found in the
turtle, alligator, and armadillo that also serve flexibility depending
In nature, there are a large number of biological structures on the adjacent plate’s relative motion [18]. The osteoderms of a
which have outstanding mechanical properties. These biological glyptodont are naturally optimised in strength and energy absorp-
structures are complex but naturally optimised to serve different tion capacity to protect the body [19]. These energy-absorbing
purposes and functions [1], including protecting themselves from structures have inspired works aimed at imitating them for devel-
predator attack and sustaining dynamic loading conditions [2]. oping armour materials that can absorb the impact energy by plas-
The demand for lightweight, high-strength materials is always a tic deformation [20,21]. Recent studies suggest that fish skins
matter of concern in the applications of many industries, such as [22,23], nacre [24-26], turtle shells [5,7,27], bird beaks [28,29],
automobile, aerospace, defence and transportation. Such industries horns [2,30], shark teeth [31], and horse hooves [32] have shown
require materials with high impact resistance and energy absorp- fairly good impact-resistant properties [33]. These unique and
tion capacity [3]. Conventional materials have been developed to excellent properties of biological materials qualify them to inspire
meet demand using various approaches. Although some of these improvements to human-made conventional materials. A recent
approaches have succeeded in fulfilling the requirements, develop- review suggests that flexible, lightweight, and tough armours can
ing novel strategies is essential to get the desired material proper- be designed by adopting the design features of biological armours
ties and, hence, performance under impact loading. Therefore, [34]. It is impossible to replace engineering materials with biolog-
researchers are interested in developing biomimetic armours ical materials, but learning from nature has far-reaching implica-
inspired by biological sources [4-7]. tions for synthetic materials.
According to McKittrick, et al. [8], the mechanical properties of Additive manufacturing (AM) is an advanced technology that is
biological materials change depending on the synergistic effect considered as one of the promising manufacturing processes for
among the biopolymer and mineral phases. With the mineral the next industrial revolution [35,36]. It offers significant advan-
phases, the stiffness is high but toughness is low; while the tages over conventional manufacturing [37,38]. AM allows manu-
biopolymer phase has low stiffness and high toughness. As shown facturing complex-shaped structures in various configurations
in Fig. 1, the toughness and stiffness relationship was first intro- that are mimicked from biological materials [1]. Biomimicry deliv-
duced by Ashby, et al. [9] and has subsequently been modified, ers the way to mimic natural structures, whereas AM offers flexi-
e.g. [10,11]. Biological materials such as bone, mollusc shell and bility in designing and manufacturing multi-material, multi-scale,
antler are naturally optimised in function, properties and hierar- and multi-functional bio-inspired structures. AM can be used as a
chical configurations rather than following the individual charac- tool to understand the functions of natural structures or natural
teristics of biopolymers and minerals. In engineering materials, strategies can be considered to improve AM [39]. So, additively
the toughness generally decreases sharply with the increase in manufactured bio-inspired structures have the ability to open
stiffness. However, biological materials can resist fracture despite new opportunities with natural strategies to improve armour
an increase in stiffness. The toughness enhancement mechanisms designs.
are present in biological materials due to their unique architec- In this review paper, we consider biological structures from
tures [12]. Nevertheless, it has become a design challenge to marine and terrestrial animals that safeguard their body parts from
enhance the performance of human-made materials that is analo- external attacks or loads. The dermal armours such as scale and
gous to biological materials [13]. This design challenge has been osteoderm are common biological structures that provide protec-
successfully overcome when engineering materials and structures tion and flexibility. We also discuss keratin-based biological struc-
are inspired by natural structures [14-17]. tures that are not employed for protective purposes, such as
Many animals possess armour in the formation of scales or a hooves and horn. However, they have damage-tolerant properties
shell surrounding the body. In some cases, specific body parts like suitable for the development of strong, tough, flexible, and light-
the horn and hoof also perform the protective function for animals. weight bioinspired armour. Moreover, we highlight AM processes
Scale-based armours are found in two distinct categories: overlap- that are adopted to build hierarchical biomimetic structures. The
ping scales and osteoderms (interconnected bony plate). Animals future direction of fabricating bio-inspired armour using AM is also
like the pangolin, most fish and snakes have overlapping scales discussed.

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Muhammed Kamrul Islam, P.J. Hazell, J.P. Escobedo et al. Materials & Design 205 (2021) 109730

Fig. 2. Biomimetic structures categorisation for armour designs.

2. Biomimetics for defensive designs ments that provide flexibility in addition to protection. Puncture
resistant armour design was developed following the osteoderm
Biological structures in plants and animals are a rich source of of crocodile. In addition, several bioinspired designs showed that
inspiration. They are structures with outstanding mechanical prop- strong and tough protective system can be manufactured for low
erties. In plants, fruits and seeds are protected by fruit peels and velocity applications.
shells. The hierarchical structures of the fruit peels and shells pro- Based on our categorisation, the following sections detail how
tect the fruits and seeds from impact and other mechanical loads various creatures have protective features that can be mimicked
during falling and pecking by birds. For instance, the pummelo to improve armour construction.
fruit (Citrus maxima) shows good impact-resistant property due
to the peel’s spongy structural composition [40]. It can survive 2.1. Biomimetics for high-velocity collision protection
more than 10 m free-fall test without any visible cracking [41].
Thielen, et al. [40] point out that the high compressibility and Creatures are not subjected to high-velocity collisions per se
absolute thickness of the Citrus maxima peel are responsible for however there are a couple of examples where lessons for the
dissipating the high amount of energy during impact. The meso- armour-system application can be learned. Armour commonly
carp shell layer and thorns of the durian fruit (Durio zibethinus) comprises of a composite system [48,49]. Previous works on
improve the impact strength and energy absorption characteristics biomimetic structures showed that different configurations are
[42]. Coconut (Cocos nucifera) is able to sustain the fall from more mimicked from nature to fabricate sandwich, tube, plate, foam,
than 25 m of height and it is considered as one of the role models honeycomb, and helical structures using single or multi-
for conventional impact-resistant structures [43]. materials. There are some high-performance biological struc-
Protective armour is the basic requirement for every creature to tures that have been imitated for bio-inspired ballistic
save themselves from predatory attacks. Particularly, some crea- protective structure [46,47]. Nacre and turtle shell are examples
tures have extraordinary defensive shields or mechanisms that of such application that are explained in the following
protect their soft body from external forces or attacks. Mollusc sections.
shells protect the soft body parts of snails, clams and oysters,
whereas fish scales provide limited protection but flexibility in 2.1.1. Nacre
the movement of the body. This defensive function not only pre- The nacre structure is considered as the ‘gold standard’ for
sents in marine species, but it is also found in terrestrial animals. developing high-performance structural materials with outstand-
Keratin-based natural armour has been identified in terrestrial ani- ing strength and toughness [50]. Nacre structures that are found
mals and they have shown impressive defensive performance to in the inner of a mollusc shell, as shown in Fig. 3, protect the soft
the animals like the armadillo and pangolin. Moreover, crocodile body from extreme loads [51-53]. The protection layer is made of
[44], alligators [45] and turtles [46] have strong and protective calcium carbonate (95–97%), protein and polysaccharides (3–5%)
armour shells that help them to live for a longer period in what that is configured as a brick and mortar structure [50,54-56]. When
are often violent environments. There are many other biological Yin, et al. [57] have followed the ’brick and mortar’ configuration to
structures like hooves, beaks, claws, etc. that are not comprehen- develop nacre-like glass, they found that the glass has more than
sively studied for biomimicry research, but they have the potential two times the impact-resistant capacity than conventional lami-
to contribute to the development of armour systems. For this nated or tempered glass. Impact-resistant nacre-like composites
review, we have categorised different types of biomimetic- were fabricated adopting modified Voronoi diagrams where poly-
inspired protection and source of the biomimetic structure are lactic acid (PLA) was used to fabricate the hexagonal platelets.
illustrated in Fig. 2. Previous studies suggest that nacre and turtle Nylon and thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) were selected alter-
shell inspired structures are preferred for hard armours [46,47]. natively for the soft interlamellar matrices, as shown in Fig. 3.
However, they also provide high level of restriction of movement. The optimised biomaterial composites absorbed two times greater
Thus, mobility and movement are needed to be adjusted with the impact energy than the monolithic additively manufactured struc-
protection features. Scale and osteoderms are the biological ele- ture. Similarly, nacre like structures were developed from several
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Muhammed Kamrul Islam, P.J. Hazell, J.P. Escobedo et al. Materials & Design 205 (2021) 109730

Fig. 3. Nacre structure [59,60]: (a) red abalone shell; (b) cross-section; (c) electron micrograph scan of nacre; (d) schematic view of nacre structure; (e) modified Voronoi
diagram configuration for a nacre-like design; (f) nacre-like structure using PLA and nylon; (g) nacre-like structure using PLA and TPU. (For interpretation of the references to
colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

Fig. 4. Nacre-inspired LAST armour geometries [62].

Fig. 5. Carapace cross section [64].

Voronoi diagrams with varying cohesive bonding matrices [58,59].

Further, the hardening behaviour and damage distribution of the 2.1.2. Turtle shells
biomimetic composite depended on the orientation of the cohesive The turtle shell material was considered a biological polymer
element layers [52]. before the advancement of the synthetic polymer [63]. The turtle
Nacre structures offer two-layer armour protection. The outer shell has a structural protein layer at the top that covers the inter-
layer is a hard and brittle calcite layer, whereas the inner layer is nal bony parts. Many researchers have studied the mechanical
relatively ductile and strong. This is similar to the disturber or properties of the turtle shell. A wide range of modulus of elasticity
absorber concept that is commonly seen in ceramic armour from 3.5 to 16.5 MPa has been identified in carapace cross-
systems [20]. Moreover, growth lines are also present that act like sections, as shown in Fig. 5 [64]. According to Arciszewski and Cor-
crack deflectors [56]. Hexagonal shaped LAST (Light-appliqué nell [65], the turtle shell is one of the natural analogues of early
Armor System Technology) tiles (Fig. 4) were manufactured man-made plate armours. The plate armours had a flat surface
by Foster-Miller mimicking the abalone shell in shape. These with uniform thickness. The curved shell structured armour
armour tiles have been used in military vehicles such as the (12th century) was then introduced as the curved shapes are found
Humvee [61]. more effective in energy absorption. After several evolutionary

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Muhammed Kamrul Islam, P.J. Hazell, J.P. Escobedo et al. Materials & Design 205 (2021) 109730

Fig. 6. (a) Turtle shell - a possible natural analogue of man-made armour [67]; (b) shell structured armour (12th century); (b) German armour (14th century); (d) polish light
cavalry armour (17th century) [65].

Fig. 7. (a) Morphology of the bovine hoof wall [71,72]; (b) 3D model of the biomimetic structure [71].

steps, metal-made multi-piece armour with increased mobility in the hoof, horn, fur, wool, skin, baleen, hair, nail, quill, and
were introduced in the 14th century, as shown in Fig. 6(c). Later armour, whereas in reptile animals, keratin is present in osteoderm
in the 17th century, the armour was modified to lightweight, covering and feet. Bird feather, beaks and claws, fish teeth, and
reduced in size and complexity that is shown in Fig. 6(d) [65]. slime are made of keratin that varies in morphology depending
Though there is no proof that early man-made armour were on the specific part’s function [30]. Meanwhile, keratin-made body
inspired from natural shell designs, natural shells like turtle shells parts serving protective and defence functions exhibit hierarchical
are mostly curved to be fit with the environment. Turtle shells architectures from nano to centimetre scale [70].
could be considered an inspiration for future hard armour shells
where mobility is not a matter of concern [66].
2.2.1. Hooves and horn
Wang, et al. [71] proposed a bovine hoof inspired armour struc-
2.2. Biomimetics for low-velocity blunt-impact loading ture that was tough and light in weight. In another work, they
identified three kinds of crack propagation from the outer to the
There are several examples where it is important for creatures inner layer of the bovine hoof wall due to its morphology (Fig. 7
to protect themselves from low-velocity collision and much of (a)) [72]. Three configurations (G1, G2 and G3) have been designed
these examples require the use of keratin on the outer or impact and additively manufactured (Fig. 7(b)), where hollow hexagonal
surfaces. Keratin is a structural protein that is present in epithelial prisms are represented as a tubular structure for simplification.
cells and considered as one of the toughest biological materials For G2 and G3, three levels of hexagonal prisms were arranged at
[68,69]. This structural protein is mostly found in the outer cover 0–22.50-450 and 0–22.50-450 with a deflection of 150 respectively,
of selected parts of vertebrates. In mammals, keratin can be found as shown in Fig. 7(b). It was shown that the additively manufac-
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Muhammed Kamrul Islam, P.J. Hazell, J.P. Escobedo et al. Materials & Design 205 (2021) 109730

Fig. 8. Intratubular material and the arrangements of tubules in the hoof wall [77].

Fig. 9. (a-c) Equine hoof wall dorsal view, midsagittal view and transverse section; (d) 3D rendering from micro CT image and tubules [80].

tured bovine inspired structures improved critical stress intensity between the mid-wall tubules and mid-wall intertubular area. The
factor and critical energy release rate by 39% and 55% respectively, toughness of the wall is dominated by the arrangement of the
thus making the structure an attractive option for improving intermediate filament [77]. The tubular area is primarily composed
toughness in some aspects of armour design. of the amorphous matrix that has a higher amount of sulfur-rich
Similarly, the equine hoof wall has been identified as a natural amino acid [78]. The disulfide bonds between intermediate
energy absorbent polymer composite. The equine and bovine filament-matrix and matrix–matrix contribute to enhance the stiff-
hooves have analogous structures and mechanical properties [73] ness and rigidity of the tubular area [79,80]. These tubules act as a
except the equine hoof has higher moisture contents than the reinforcement structure (Fig. 9 (d)) to support the load and protect
bovine hoof [74]. The tubule wall of equine hooves is thicker and the structure from developing cracks or shear bending. The tubules
keratin cells in the intertubular zone are arranged in a less parallel contribute to redirecting the crack propagation to the hoof wall,
fashion than bovine hooves. However, equine hooves have higher which saves the wall from any catastrophic failure. Consequently,
fracture toughness than bovine hooves depending on the interac- Huang, et al. [80] suggested that the equine hoof wall could be a
tions between the tubular and inter-tubular material and orienta- potential inspiration for developing lightweight and energy absor-
tion of intermediate filament [75]. According to Douglas, et al. [76], bent structures and materials.
the outer hoof wall has a modulus of elasticity of 1,004 MPa, which Horn has a similar structure to equine and bovine hooves and
is twice the modulus of the inner wall. The hoof wall is comprised can be resilient to impact. As shown in Fig. 10, it is a keratin-
of tubules (Fig. 8) across the wall that are arranged in a separate based material that serves as a weapon for animals such as sheep,
zone and act as a fibre reinforced composite. The tubules are stiffer cattle, goat, and buffalo [70]. The hard keratin sheath of the horn is
than the intertubular matrix, while similar tensile stiffness is found tough, resilient and highly resistant to impact loads. The keratin

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Muhammed Kamrul Islam, P.J. Hazell, J.P. Escobedo et al. Materials & Design 205 (2021) 109730

Fig. 10. Hierarchical structure of sheep horn [75].

Fig. 11. (a) Ironclad beetle (Phloeodes diabolicus); (b) bottom section; (c) cross sectional view; (d) microstructure showing the internal layers [83].

has a lamellar structure arranged in the radial directions with 2.2.2. Beetle
tubules that extend towards the growth lines (Fig. 10). In tension, A lightweight compression-resistant exoskeleton has been
tubules provide a stiffness to the horn while they absorb energy identified in ironclad beetle (Phloeodes diabolicus) by Rivera, et al.
during transverse compression. Moreover, the spiral geometry of [83]. The exoskeleton architecture differs from the other terrestrial
horns absorb strain energy and dissipates the kinetic energy during beetles composed of three distinct regions: the elytra, lateral sup-
impact load. However, they are unable to self-repair unlike bone port, and cuticle (Fig. 11(c)). The exoskeleton structure is a non-
that can recover from mechanical damage from fatigue or accident mineralised composite enhanced by the ordered alpha chitin fibre
[81]. Like other keratin-based biological materials, the water con- orientation in a 3D array. The microstructural architecture (Fig. 11
tent in horn dominates the mechanical properties [82]. The tensile (d)) resists internal fracture and lateral expansion. The structure of
strength and Young’s modulus decrease rapidly with the increase the ironclad beetle can be mimicked to create a biomimetic com-
of moisture content. posite structure for impact resistance.

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Muhammed Kamrul Islam, P.J. Hazell, J.P. Escobedo et al. Materials & Design 205 (2021) 109730

Fig. 12. (a) Cross lamellar structure of a conch shell; (b) additively manufactured bioinspired laminate structure; (c) crack travelling to the layer interface; (d) crack defection
or penetration depending on the interfacing angle [87].

Fig. 13. (a) Crocodile [89]; (b) pyramid structure; (c) laser sintered structure [90].

2.2.3. Conch shell parison, the later design enhanced the impact performance than
The conch shell has a unique three-tier hierarchical lamellar the first level of hierarchy design and bulk stiff materials by 70%
structure with excellent mechanical properties [84], which can and 85%, respectively. Moreover, the crack arresting mechanism
sustain predator attacks. This shell provides damage controlling has been revealed in the layer interfaces, which was analysed using
mechanisms such as crack deflection and crack bridging to finite element modelling. The analysis suggested that crack deflec-
enhance the toughness of the shell [85,86]. Gu, et al. [87] presented tion into the layer interface will occur if the interfacing angle is
a multilayer additively manufactured biomimetic structure (Fig. 12 kept below 500, as shown in Fig. 12(d). The penetration through
(b)) following the complex hierarchical architecture of the conch the additively manufactured parts of armour and helmets can be
shell. reduced adopting the conch shell architecture concept and FE
Two levels of hierarchies were incorporated to understand the analysis.
effect of hierarchy on impact performance. In the first level of
the hierarchy, the additively manufactured layers were stacked 2.3. Biomimetics for sharp impact loading
in 00, 900 and 00 sequence. The second level of hierarchy design
was more similar to conch shell architecture, where crisscrossed In general, biological structures like osteoderms are not sub-
patterned layers were aligned relatively 450 to each other. In com- jected to sharp impact loading. However, few researchers have
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Muhammed Kamrul Islam, P.J. Hazell, J.P. Escobedo et al. Materials & Design 205 (2021) 109730

Fig. 14. Protective armour arrangements in fishes: (A) elasmoid scales; (B) ganoid scales; (C) placoid scales; (D) carapace scutes; (E) bony plates [100].

Fig. 15. (a) Arapaima gigas; (b) arapaima scales; (c) cross-section of a scale; (d) mineralised collagen fibrils in Bouligand type arrangement (e) single mineralised collagen
fibrils [99,101].

been followed the architecture of osteoderms of alligator and cro- fort [91]. Body armour needs to be flexible so as to allow for a full
codile to develop stab-resistance armours. They also considered range of motion and nature has several examples that we will
AM techniques to fabricate the bio-inspired model. review now.

2.3.1. Crocodile 2.4.1. Fish scale

Few creatures possess armour that is efficient at dealing with Of particular note are the dermal armours of fish that protect
sharp impact loading across the whole body. The osteoderms of against predatory attacks and save the soft interior body. These
crocodile cover the entire body to serve as this type of protection. functionally graded biological materials provide resistance to
The flexible skin is puncture resistant and it is repellent to arrows impact loads and penetration force such as bites of piranhas [92-
and bullets [88,89]. Yuan, et al. [90] designed a stab-resistant plate 94] and other predatory animals. Though they are relatively stiff,
mimicking the crocodile model. The novel stab-resistant body they serve the body for flexible movement as they are not con-
armour was shaped in pyramidal structure (Fig. 13 (c)) which min- nected with the body with traditional joint mechanisms [95].
imised the plate damage by dispersing the energy created from According to the structural orientation, the overlapping scales are
sharp-edged hitting. Moreover, by adding carbon fibre to the new classified into five types as elasmoid scales, ganoid scales, placoid
design, weight was reduced by 43% and mechanical properties scales, carapace scutes and bony plates [96,97], as shown in
were increased compared to the conventional stab resistance body Fig. 14. Elasmoid scales have shown exceptional mechanical prop-
armour. erties that are composed of parallel collagen fibre plate [98] and
highly mineralised apatite. Mineralised collagen fibres consist of
2.4. Biomimetics for mobility and movement fibrils that are oriented in Bouligand-type arrangement (Fig. 15)
[99].
An important aspect of personal protection is the ability to At the molecular level, the Bouligand (twisted plywood) struc-
move when wearing body armour to provide flexibility and com- ture is also present in some arthropods body parts that are used
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Muhammed Kamrul Islam, P.J. Hazell, J.P. Escobedo et al. Materials & Design 205 (2021) 109730

Fig. 16. (a) Mantis shrimp (Odontodactylus Scyllarus) indicating the dactyl club; (b) 3D rendering from CT scan; (c) transverse section of dactyl club showing impact (I),
periodic (II) and straited regions (III); (d) SEM of periodic region [115,117].

Fig. 17. (a) Bouligand structure showing pitch angle [118]; (b) CAD models and additively manufactured bioinspired composites with varying pitch angle c of 00, 50, 100, 300
and 450 [109].

to catch prey. In these structures, the filaments are arranged in lay- posites (Fig. 17) following the mantis shrimp’s Bouligand structure
ers with a helicoidal architecture [102,103]. Despite the high func- showed high damage resistance and improved fracture resistance
tional versatility, these twisted plywood structures make the in- by delaying the catastrophic failure [109,115]. Furthermore,
plane direction stiffer and increase fracture resistance in the trans- researchers of the University of Houston [116] have used chitin
verse direction [104]. The exoskeleton of lobster [105,106], crab from the shrimp shell to coat body armour. Three layers of
[107,108], mantis shrimp [109-111], some fish armour [101,112], biodegradable polymer were applied by AM where the outer layer
and beetle [113,114] have adopted similar structures to improve absorbed the high impact energy. The method of the coating can be
the toughness and damage tolerance. In the case of the mantis implemented to other applications subjected to impact load [116].
shrimp, three different regions are identified in the dactyl club as Browning, et al. [119] studied the geometry of elasmoid fish
shown in Fig. 16, where the impact region and periodic region scale and fabricated a new composite structure mimicking the
(Fig. 16 (c)) have the Bouligand arrangement of fibres and chitin overlapping scales that can be implemented in developing engi-
fibrils [115]. Additively manufactured bioinspired helicoidal com- neering protection systems, as shown in Fig. 18. The composite

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Muhammed Kamrul Islam, P.J. Hazell, J.P. Escobedo et al. Materials & Design 205 (2021) 109730

Fig. 18. Development of fish-scale inspired protection layer: (a) Atlantic Salmon [121]; (b) overlapping scales and tissues from body and tail; (c) micro CT scan of scales, (d)
additively manufactured bioinspired layers [119].

Fig. 19. Metamesh model overview [122].

was able to resist penetration by distributing the loads over large adopted from flexible fish exoskeleton has been translated to the
areas with multilayer scales. The circular disks constrained to each host surface (human shoulder). Moreover, the simulation of the
other like fish scales significantly increased the flexibility of the metamesh (Fig. 19) model sets the basis for physiological and kine-
armour and reduced the growth of damage during impact load. matic development focusing on flexible protector structures. Sim-
The overlapping discs absorb the kinetic energy of the impactor ilarly, flexible armour design is proposed being inspired from
and transmit the impact energy to the adjacent discs while the rest chiton girdle scales which are unlike fish scales in terms of organic
of the energy is absorbed by the inner layer of the armour structure components, but are flexible and arranged in an overlapping fash-
[120]. ion [18]. Chiton scales are 3D structures, whereas fish have 2D
Metamesh, a novel hierarchical computational model that oper- scales. The additively manufactured chiton inspired knee pad
ates in three levels of resolution: locally, regionally and globally, (Fig. 20) overcomes the limitations of conventional knee pads by
was proposed by Duro-Royo, et al. [122]. The design principle a proper balance of flexibility and protection.

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Muhammed Kamrul Islam, P.J. Hazell, J.P. Escobedo et al. Materials & Design 205 (2021) 109730

Fig. 20. (a) Electron microscopy image of chiton Rhyssolax Canariensis [123]; (b) rendering of chiton from micro CT scan; (c) individual girdle scale rendering; (d) scales,
matrix and soft layers of bio-inspired armour; (e) scale assembly and X-ray of knee pad with bio-inspired scale; (f) bio-inspired knee pads applied to break glass [18].

2.4.2. Seahorse tail plate, whereas relatively poor performance was observed for
The seahorse has a bony plate armour with multifunctional armours based on the fish scale geometries [134]. Hexagonal
benefits like protection, structural support and prehension. The shaped armour has also been identified in boxfish (Lactoria Cor-
plastic deformation is followed by buckling and bending of the ver- nuta) that is identical to the armadillo, as shown in Fig. 24.
tebral struts and bony plate after permanent deformation that Similar approaches have also been adopted with modern cera-
increases the fracture-resistance of the natural armour [124]. The mic armour for the development of mosaic armour system [135]
tail is an inspiration for flexible armour design that can provide and several authors have demonstrated improved performance of
bending and flexible functions, as shown in Fig. 21. the ceramic insert by virtue of it being surrounded by a tough layer
[137-140]. This relatively tough layer is thought to limit the dam-
2.4.3. Pangolins age growth from the relatively brittle ceramic insert.
Pangolins have keratinous scales arranged in an overlapping
fashion similar to fish scales and are one of the few mammals hav- 3. Biomimetic structures in AM
ing such flexible dermal armour (Fig. 22 (a)) [126]. These sharp and
plate-like scales protect them from the attack of predators. In 1820, It is clear from the proceeding review that natural structures
an armour coat made of pangolin scales was presented to King comprise stiff and soft building blocks, often nanometer in size
George III shown in Fig. 22 (b). A ballistic vest known as Dragon and hierarchical in arrangement and therefore complex
skin armour, was manufactured by Pinnacle Armor mimicking [141,142]. Conventional manufacturing techniques are limited to
the overlapping pangolin scales as can be seen by X-ray, as shown fabricate biomimetic structures with relatively simple configura-
in Fig. 22 (c). tions. Although sometimes complex structures can be fabricated
using conventional machining processes, they involve the waste
2.4.4. Armadillo of materials as they mostly build by subtracting the material from
Overlapping protection layers are also found in armadillo (Dasy- the workpiece [38,143]. However, AM provides a route to fabricate
pus novemcinctus) which has a dark brown keratin external layer. intricate bio-inspired designs that helps to understand the mecha-
The inner part is organised with hexagonal bony tiles that are con- nism and response of biological materials to external loads. Recent
nected by collagen (Fig. 23 (c)). The hexagonal bony tiles are con- studies suggest that it is becoming an integral part of biomimetics
nected to adjacent tiles with a Sharpey’s layer which is consisted of research to facilitate the design optimisation of materials [10].
non-mineralised collagen fibres, as shown in Fig. 23 (d). The colla- AM is an advanced technique that builds a structure by joining
gen fibre dominates the flexibility of the natural armour of materials in layer by layer fashion, which differs from the conven-
armadillos, alligators and turtles [131]. Rectangular [132] and tri- tional subtractive and formative manufacturing processes [144]. It
angular osteoderms are also present along the carapace. In dry con- allows single or multi-material fabrication with a wide range of
ditions, the hard mineralised tiles have higher tensile strength than materials including biodegradable polymers. The flexibility of
the hydrated tiles [133]. The ballistic performance of the armadillo usage and versatile features of AM have become useful to fabricate
scale was compared numerically with two types of fish scales pla- composites for load-bearing and energy absorption applications
coid and ganoid. The impact situations are varied with the different [145] like aerospace [146-148], automobile [147,149,150],
ceramic structural parameters to conduct the numerical analysis in biomedical [151-153], and military [97,154-156] applications.
ABAQUS/Explicit. Armour based on the armadillo structure has Higher degree of automation can be obtained by adopting AM
shown a higher ballistic performance than the monolithic ceramic design strategies in industry sectors [157]. According to Ngo,
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Muhammed Kamrul Islam, P.J. Hazell, J.P. Escobedo et al. Materials & Design 205 (2021) 109730

Fig. 21. (a) Seahorse (Hippocampus kuda) [124]; (b) tail segments showing vertebra surrounded by dermal plates [125]; (c) additively manufactured bio-inspired tail [17].

et al. [158] fused deposition modelling (FDM), powder bed fusion, final parts [167]. Impact-resistant bio-inspired structures have
vat photopolymerization, laminated object manufacturing, and been fabricated using the duel extruded FDM process. Multi-
material jetting are the common AM technologies that are applied material printing offers the benefit of combining stiff and soft
for aerospace, biomedical, and protective structures. Moreover, materials in a single structure like many natural designs [59]. In
metal AM shows good response to make biomimetic impact pro- addition, extrusion has been studied to improve the design of the
tective armour [159]. Several structures have been mimicked from protective system with multiple layers of defence [119], flexibility
nature and fabricated using different AM technology. Table 1 sum- in movement [161], and energy absorption [71]. However, poor
marises the main methods of AM, materials, mimicked structure, surface quality, slow printing rate, and dimensional constraints
and outcome. are some limitations of this process that are still needed to over-
Material extrusion (ME) is a widely used AM technique where come to get the final part.
the material is passed through a heated nozzle continuously and Material jetting (MJ) is AM technology that sprays the pho-
deposited in a defined path in layer-by-layer formation to create topolymer resin as droplets and cures them using ultraviolet
the 3D object. It is also known as Fused Deposition Modeling (UV) lights. It is also referred as 3D inkjet printing due to its simi-
(FDM) and considered as one of the simple and cost-effective AM larity with 2D inkjet printing [168]. However, MJ completes a 3D
technique. Mostly this process is suitable for producing prototypes structure printing in a layer-by-layer fashion, 2D printers print
with different size, shapes and quantities. Also, a range of thermo- only one single layer. PolyJet (Stratasys Ltd.) and MultiJet (3D Sys-
plastic material can be used in FDM for fabricating prototypes and tema) can deposit multiple UV curable materials to create multi-

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Muhammed Kamrul Islam, P.J. Hazell, J.P. Escobedo et al. Materials & Design 205 (2021) 109730

Fig. 22. (a) Pangolin scales [70,127], (b) armour made from pangolin keratin scales [128,129]; (c) x-ray of the Dragon Skin armour [70]; (d) Dragon Skin armour [130].

Fig. 23. (a) Armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus); (b) outer keratin-based layer of armadillo carapace; (c) inner layer with hexagonal bony segments [135]; (d) collagen fibres
between the osteoderms of armadillo and alligator gar [131].

material objects [169]. High resolution, smooth surface and multi- range of structures (Table 1) like Bouligand, helicoidal, overlapping
material printing are benefits that are important for bioinspired and lamellar have shown satisfactory mechanical properties for
structures. Hybrid stiff and soft matrix architecture have been fab- protective functions. Despite its advantages, MJ is an expensive
ricated that provides protection and flexibility depending on the process compared with other AM technologies. It uses photosensi-
geometrical variation of the microstructure [164]. Similarly, a tive materials that may degrade the quality of the final part if UV

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Muhammed Kamrul Islam, P.J. Hazell, J.P. Escobedo et al. Materials & Design 205 (2021) 109730

Powder bed fusion (PBF) AM process uses an electron or laser

beam to melt and fuse the powder. In laser sintering (LS), the pow-
der is placed in a chamber and powder is fused in specific locations
in each layer using a laser beam [171]. A wide range of polymer,
metals and a few ceramics are processed by PBF [143]. Strong,
functional, and complex parts can be printed without requiring
any supporting material [172]. For example, models of stab resis-
tance armours were investigated by Yuan, et al. [90] and Johnson,
et al. [166]. The 3D printed test samples were fabricated following
a pyramid structure (Yuan et al. [90]) and overlapping scale struc-
ture (Johnson et al. [166]), respectively. With the latter example,
operational flexibility would be maintained in a commercial pro-
tective system. Previous studies have shown that a polymer can
be used to prototype the armour design, whereas metal parts are
clearly more desirable and PBF can be utilised to make both. The
PBF process is quite expensive as it requires post-processing. If
convenient post-processing is achieved, it will be a suitable AM
technology for producing parts for commercial service.
The benefit of increasing the complexity on the impact response
of structures has been shown by Jia, et al. [173]. This can be
achieved though AM. In this work, five different bio-mimicked
microstructures: layer, brick and mortar, cross-lamellar, concentric
hexagon, and rotating plywood have been investigated in their per-
Fig. 24. Boxfish showing similar hexagonal plates connected with collagen fibres
[135,136].
formance against a low-velocity impact response. Improved stiff-
ness, strength, and toughness are found when they replaced a
microstructure with a higher-order microstructure. The hybrid
designs (Fig. 25) absorbed 3–8 times more energy compared with
curing is not performed carefully. Moreover, the MJ final parts the solid designs. In other work, they recommended combining
require post-processing which increases the production time the five structures to obtain better damage resistance properties
[170]. A plethora of research is continuing on functional polymer [174]. Further, they proposed bio-mimicked hybrid beam designs
resins [171,172] and their deposition strategy [173,174] to that showed an enhanced mechanical performance when com-
improve the durability of the MJ parts. pared to a monolithic structure. These designs had control over

Table 1
A summary of main AM methods, material, mimicked structure and their benefits.

Additive Manufacturing Biomimetic structure Material Benefits/Outcome

Technology
Material Extrusion (ME) Nacre-like brick and PLA, TPU and Nylon [59] Promising enhancement of impact resistance compared to
mortar structure monolithic panel
Acrylonitrile butadiene Developed numerical model for nacre-like composite, cohesive
styrene, (ABS), PLA and TPU bonds and adhesive bonds contribute to minimise damage.
[58]
Overlapping scales [119] ABS Flexibility with multiple layer defence obtained
Bovine hoof inspired PLA Critical energy improved by 55%
structure [71]
Horse hoof inspired core PLA and epoxy Stiff and soft layer combination help to mitigate impact failure,
structure [160] Greater energy absorbed by the biomimetic structure
Cylindrical and Square tail ABSplus Square tail found three times stiffer than the cylindrical tail
shaped structure [161]
Vat Photopolymerization Concentric, layered and Ebecryl 230 and Isobornyl Material properties enhanced than the monolithic structure
cholesteric structure [162] acrylate
Material Jetting (MJ) Conch shell inspired cross- Veromagneta and Two-level of hierarchy achieved by printing stiff and soft
lamellar structure [87] Tangoblackplus (Stratasys material,85% impact resistance improved compared to stiff
Ltd.) monolithic material
Bouligand Structure [109] VeroWhitePlus and Twisting crack develops that increase the fracture resistance
FullCure705 (Stratasys Ltd.)
Herringbone structure and VeroWhitePlus and Herringbone structures have three times higher energy absorption
helicoidal structures [163] TangoBlackPlus (Stratasys capability than helicoidal structures.
Ltd.)
Fish scale [164] Verowhite (VW) and Stiff and soft matrix provide flexibility in movement and resistance
TangoPlus (TP) (Stratasys Ltd.) for penetration
Helicoidal Structure [165] RGD 720 resin (Stratasys Ltd.) Shear resistance improved in fibre-reinforced additively
manufactured composites
Chiton scale inspired VeroWhitePlus and Flexible scaled armour fabricated, the balance of protection and
overlapping plate TangoBlackPlus/TangoPlus flexibility tuned by varying scale size
structure [18] (Stratasys Ltd.)
Powder Bed Fusion (PBF) Pyramid structure [90] Polyamide/carbon fibre Pyramidal structure showed improved stab resistance than the
planar plates, 43% weight reduced in bioinspired body armour
Ò
Scale like armour [97,166] Duraform EX (3D Systems) Stab resistant armour is more operational and flexible than the
existing rigid armours.

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Muhammed Kamrul Islam, P.J. Hazell, J.P. Escobedo et al. Materials & Design 205 (2021) 109730

Fig. 25. (a1-d1) Biomimetic hybrid beam design; (b) beam performance comparison in a radar plot [173].

the deformation field and crack propagation pattern, thereby pro- material reduction are some of the potential benefits of AM that
viding opportunities to integrate into protective systems. overlook the traditional manufacturing industry.
Furthermore, Studart [175] developed an analogous additive AM processes like ME, MJ, PBF and sheet lamination are suitable
approach in biological tissue and AM. In the case of biomineralisa- for the prototyping application only, whereas the final functional
tion, the biological matters were deposited in a layer-by-layer parts can be manufactured by PBF and direct energy deposition
fashion. Similarly, a 3D printer built a structure layer by layer by [183]. Martini, et al. [184] fabricated fish-scale inspired prototypes
adding continuous synthetic filament material [176,177]. The using AM where the CAD model was generated from the microto-
bio-inspired structure fabricated using AM can be also applied to mography data of stickleback armour. Binder jetting were used to
the material infill pattern during printing. A bio-inspired parallel- create arrays of scales in simple to complex arrangements includ-
scan path was adopted by Sun, et al. [178] to manufacture tensile ing overlapping and interlocking features. The scale designs having
specimens. Consequently, the strength and toughness improved by a close match with the natural scales have been noticed as an effi-
12% and 101% respectively compared to a traditional printing pat- cient combination of flexibility and puncture resistance. For exam-
tern with a rotational angle of 900. The bio-inspired 3D infill pat- ple, a bio-inspired knee pad has been trialled on sharp objects
terns open the pathway to complex branching structure that where it showed higher puncture resistance than conventional
have great potential in structural applications [179]. The study of kneepads. The degree of flexibility and protection are dependent
Zhang, et al. [180] revealed that sustainable design could be made on scale shape, size, and loading conditions [18]. However, bioin-
by applying bio-inspired geometries to AM. They assessed the spired structures require hierarchical architecture including nano
functionality, economic and environmental impacts of bioinspired to micro-scale resolution which is a limitation of AM technologies
geometric structures. Nevertheless, AM is not going to replace tra- [185].
ditional manufacturing, but it will challenge the constraints of con- Although high performance complex-shaped biomimetic struc-
ventional manufacturing in specific areas like cost, quality, tures have been manufactured successfully using AM, there are
innovation, and impact [181,182]. The higher product quality and several challenges in AM such as the geometry of CAD design, tool

Fig. 26. (a) Biomimicry design spiral [191]; (b) Modified biomimicry design for AM.

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Muhammed Kamrul Islam, P.J. Hazell, J.P. Escobedo et al. Materials & Design 205 (2021) 109730

path selection, material properties, the need of support material, information for improvement or optimisation, and this process
process selection, and resolution [150,180,186,187]. Fabrication merges with the evaluation step of the design spiral. The overall
of multi-scale (nano to micro-scale) structures and realising the process should be iterative to get an optimised product. Conse-
interfacing effects in multi- material printing are also confonting quently, the incorporation of the artificial intelligence approach
issues for researchers in making functional structures [188]. These will facilitate AM developments toward automated industrial
limitations have been faced by users for mass production that applications [37].
impede the progression of AM at the industry level [189]. More In nature, there are many mechanisms and designs that have
investigation is required in metal AM processes particularly for been protecting animals and plants from external loads or forces.
the application of armour fabrication. These challenges can be mit- This work provides an overview of bio-inspired protective struc-
igated by optimising the design and fabrication process with min- tures that have been suggested by researchers. Following the
imal effort. above-discussed mechanisms and natural structures, future strate-
gies are proposed for enhancing armour. These are:
4. Biomimicry design and its perspectives using AM
 The brick and mortar structure that is found in nacre has been
The concept of the biomimicry design spiral was introduced by mimicked and modified with the Voronoi diagram for improved
Carl Hastrich, who specified six steps to design a bio-inspired impact resistance. However, the AM materials have been lim-
structure [190], as shown in Fig. 26 (a). Each step is defined by ited to PLA, Nylon and TPU, which makes a combination of soft
the biomimicry institute [191]. The first step is to define the func- and hard layers like biological materials. The use of materials
tion that is required in the desired design such as protection, such as high impact polystyrene (HIPS) and polyethylene
defence or energy absorption. The second step (biologize) involves terephthalate (PET) would be an excellent way to improve the
transferring the function in biological terms that will address the mechanical properties with an optimised Voronoi diagram.
design solution for protection. The third step (discovery step) finds Moreover, introducing hexagonal plates with layer bonding
natural models, strategies or patterns having the same or similar agents such as epoxy are likely to improve on impact-
function according to step 2. The next step is abstract where essen- resistant structures.
tial features and mechanisms are studied and biological strategies  A unique three-tier hierarchical lamellar structure is present in
are translated into design strategies. In the subsequent (emulate) conch shell where the calcium carbonate and protein layers are
step, the design concept for the protective product is developed oriented in right angles with each other. The rotating interfaces
from the key lessons from nature. Finally, the design is checked resist the fracture ten times higher than the nacre structure
with feasible design criteria and constraints for considering it as [87]. This exceptional stiff and soft layer formation improves
a viable solution. If a viable solution is not obtained, then the steps the toughness of the additively manufactured materials by
should be refined and revisited for optimising the design. A modi- diverting crack propagation. The combination of rotating sur-
fied biomimicry design, as shown in Fig. 26 (b), is proposed for face layers in a nacre like structure adopting the optimised Vor-
additively manufactured materials incorporating the essential ele- onoi arrangement may have the potential to improve energy
ments suggested by Velasco-Hogan, et al. [10]. AM is used in bio- absorption.
logical material science in two modes. In the first mode, it is  In the case of hoofs and horns, the presence of tubules is
used to understand how biological structures respond to mechan- observed to reinforce the structures to provide support when
ical loads and identify the governing mechanisms of that response. the load is applied. This benefit has been utilised to develop a
In the second mode, AM techniques are implemented to fabricate plethora of composites [71,72,160]. However, the effect of inter-
bioinspired designs. Identifying and understanding the governing mediate filament (IF) in AM techniques has not been studied.
mechanisms of a biological structure for AM encompasses the For instance, the extrusion of 3D printing material can be mod-
define, biologize and discovery steps of the biomimicry design spi- ified with an additional arrangement for inserting IF like fila-
ral (Fig. 26 (b)). Subsequently, prototypes are manufactured from ment through the extruded parts, as shown in Fig. 27. The
the resulting designs. The prototypes are tested to get further

Fig. 27. Fibre reinforced AM technique.

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Muhammed Kamrul Islam, P.J. Hazell, J.P. Escobedo et al. Materials & Design 205 (2021) 109730

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