Data

• Data collection is a term used to

describe a process of preparing and
collecting data.
• Data are the facts of the case.
• Inaccurate data collection can impact
the results of a study and ultimately
lead to invalid results.
 Types of Data

• 1)PRIMARY DATA : Are those which

are collected afresh and for the first
time
• 2) SECONDARY DATA : Are those
which have been collected by
someone else and which have already
been passed through the statistical
process.
 Sources of Data
SECONDARY
PRIMARY DATA
DATA
• Observation
• Personal
• Interview Records
• Questionnaire • Publications
• Documents
• Previous
Researches
• Census
 OBSERVATION METHOD

• Is a method under which data from

the field is collected through
observation
• Watching people or other creatures
interact with each other and to the
environment
 Content of Observation
Factual Inferential
Introduction/identific Credibility of
ation of salesperson salesperson.
and customer. Qualified status of
customer.
Time and day of Convenience for the
week. customer.
Welcoming attitude
of the customer
 Factual Inferential
• Product presented. • Customer interest
• Selling points in product.
presented per • Customer
product. acceptance of
• Number of selling points of
customer product.
objections raised • Customer concerns
per product. about features and
benefits.
8-8
Factual Inferential
• Length of interview. • Customer’s/sales-
person’s degree of
• Customer purchase enthusiasm for the
decision. interview.
• General evaluation
of sale presentation
skill.

8-9
 How to Observe
• Separate feelings
• Use double entry notebook
Example
• Observation:
The teacher walks around the circle
and speaks to each student individually.
• Interpretation:
The teacher seems to want to make
sure that each student understands the
assignment.
 Observation Classification

Non-behavioral Behavioral
• Record Analysis • Nonverbal
• Physical • Linguistic
Condition Analysis • Extra-linguistic
• Process or Activity • Spatial
analysis
Nonbehavioral Observation

Record
Analysis

Physical Condition
Analysis

Process or Activity
Analysis
1. Non-behavioral observation
1.1 Record analysis is the
extraction of data from current or
historical records. Data mining is a
type of record analysis
1.2 Physical condition analysis is
the recording of observations of
current conditions resulting from
prior decisions.
8-13
1.3 Process (activity) analysis is
observation by a time study of
stages in a process, evaluated on
both effectiveness and
efficiency.

8-14
Behavioral Observation
Non-verbal

Linguistic

Extralinguistic

Spatial
8-15
2. Behavioral Observation
2.1 Nonverbal observation is the most
prevalent and refers to recording physical
actions or movements of participants.
These behaviors can be measured with the
human eye and with several mechanical or
digital devices. These devices are discussed
on the following slide.
2.2 Linguistic observation is the
observation of human verbal behavior
during conversation, presentation, or
interaction. 8-16
2.3 Extralinguistic observation is the
recording of vocal, temporal, interaction,
and verbal stylistic behaviors of human
participants.
2.4 Spatial observation is the recording of
how humans physically relate to one
another.

8-17
 Behavioral Observation
Extra-linguistic

Vocal

Temporal

Interaction

Verbal Stylistic
 Observer-Participant Relationship

Direct or indirect
observation

Presence is known
or unknown

Observer involved or
not involved in events
(Participant & Non-Participant)
Desired Characteristics for Observers

Concentration

Detail-oriented

Unobtrusive

Experience level
 Concentration - observers should
have the ability to function in a
setting full of distractions
 Detail-oriented - they should have
the ability to remember details of the
observation.
 Unobtrusive – they should have
the ability to blend with the setting
and not be distinctive
8-21
Experience Level - observers
should have the ability to
extract the most from an
observation study

8-22
 Possible Errors in Observation

Halo Effect Observer Drift

 Halo Effect - Inexperience can be an
advantage if there is a risk that
experienced observers may have preset
convictions about the topic or if prior
observations will influence what is
perceived in a current observation.
 Observer Drift - errors incurred due to
fatigue. Observer drift is error caused by
decay in consistency and accuracy on
recorded observations over time, affecting
categorization.
8-24
 INTERVIEW METHOD
This method of collecting data involves
presentation or oral-verbal stimuli and reply
in terms of oral-verbal responses.

•Types of Interview

[Link] to Face Interview

[Link] Interview
 Types of Interview

Unstructured

Semi-structured

Structured
 Interview Do's and Dont's
Do’s
Do be careful of the types of
questions you ask.
Do start with small talk
Do bring recording equipment
Do pay attention to what is
being said.
Don't s
Don’t push the person you are
interviewing. If he or she does not want
to talk about an issue, you should
respect that desire.

Don't allow the person you are

interviewing to continually get off topic.
However, appreciate everything being
shared and just make a follow up
question about the study to go back to
the topic . 8-28
 Projective Techniques
Association

Sensory
Sorts Sentence
Completion
Data
Collection
Techniques
Thematic
Apperception
Cartoons
 QUESTIONNAIRE METHOD

- questionnaire is given to respondents

who are expected to read and
understand the questions and write
down the reply in the space meant
for the purpose in the questionnaire
itself.
 Question Content

Should this question be asked?

Is the question of proper scope and coverage?

Can the participant adequately

answer this question as asked?

Will the participant willingly

answer this question as asked?
Formulating Questions
Type of question... Best Used for...
*When respondents' own
Open-ended words are important;
when researchers would
like to probe more ideas

* when all response

Closed-ended choices are known

To identify the degree of

Likert-scale a person's feelings about
something.

8-32
 Formulating Questions
Type of question... Best Used for...
• Multiple-choice • When there are a finite
number of options
• Ordinal • To rate things in relation to
other things.
• When the answers are
• Categorical
categories, and each
respondent must fall into
exactly one of them.
• Numerical
• For real numbers, like age,
number of months, etc.
 Examples
Closed-Ended Open-Ended
Question Question
• Do you get on well • Tell me about your
with your boss? relationship with
your boss.
• Who will you vote • What do you think
for this election? about the two
candidates in this
• Is he the best in election?
• Describe his skills in
story telling?
story telling?
 Formatting Questions

Likert -Scale
How important do you think SAT scores
are to a college student’s success?
(select one):
Not very important
1 2 3 4 5 Extremely important
 Formatting Questions

Multiple Choice
What is your current marital status?
(Select one.)
Single
Married
Divorced
Separated
Widowed
8-36
 Formatting Questions

Ordinal
Please rank order the following service aspects
from 1 to 5 where 1 = most important to me, and 5 =
least important:

Location of the business to your home

Looks of the building

Friendliness of the people in the reception area

Privacy

Cost
 Formatting Questions
CATEGORICAL
What is your gender?
Male
Female
NUMERICAL
What is your current age? (select one)
Less than 18
18 to 29
30 to 39
40 to 49
50 or older
 Question Wording

Shared
Adequate vocabulary Single
alternatives meaning

Criteria
Misleading
Personalized assumptions

Biased