SOIL EROSION

I- DEFINITION
Soil erosion is the complete or partial removal of the top soil layers by the action of water, wind, glaciers as well
as through human activities.

II- TYPES OF SOIL EROSION

Many authors consider sheet (Image A), rill and gully erosion (Image B) as the main types of soil erosion.
These are rather forms of water erosion. This does not include Wind and ice which are the other agents of soil
loss. Thus Soil erosion could be better classified into two based on whether it is caused by natural or human
factors. These are normal geologic and accelerated erosion.

A B

1. Normal geologic erosion this is powered by the normal peneplaination process. This process operates
through natural exogenic forces in which exposed, recently created highland areas and bear surfaces are
(leveled) eroded by the action of energy in the form of water, wind or ice. This process could be very slow in
some areas but it remains persistent. This slow natural cycle does not create serious environmental problems
but has fashioned most of the geomorphic features we see today.

2. Human induced / accelerated soil erosion: this is a very fast phase of the process of erosion accelerated
by the many human activities on the environment. The repercussions are serious because the rate of soil loss
is greater the rate of soil replenishment.

III- CAUSES OF SOIL EROSION

A. Physical Causes
1. The Amount and Intensity of Rainfall: The higher the amount and intensity of rainfall, the greater
the volume of runoff. This can lead to massive erosion of the topsoil. However, soil erosion is
predominant in areas of alternating wet and dry conditions than in areas of uniformly distributed
rainfall.
2. Wind Systems: Dry and warm prevailing winds can remove a good amount of unconsolidated or loose
top soil causing soil erosion. Wind erosion is very common in the Sahelian countries of Africa like Mali,
Chad, North Cameroon etc.
3. Slope of the Land: Areas with relatively steep slope are subject to high runoff and consequently loss of
the topsoil. For example the western highland region of Cameroon is a typical example of an area of soil
erosion because of her steep slopes and hilly topography.

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 B. Human Causes
1. Overgrazing of Animals; In Cameroon, and many parts of the world, many animals may be kept on a
small piece of land. The situation may be worse when the carrying capacity of the land is exceeded. The
animals tramp the soil and make it loose. When it rains heavily the process of erosion is accelerated as
seen in the case of Northern Cameroon.
2. Deforestation; When land is cleared or when overgrazing breaks the vegetation cover, the process of
soil erosion accelerates. When its rate exceeds that of soil formation, the topsoil becomes thinner and
eventually disappears leaving behind only sterile subsoil or barren rocks. The effect of deforestation is
very pronounced on steep slopes.
3. Cultivation on Marginal Lands or Steep Slopes; When farmers cultivate vertical ridges on the slopes
or mountains, soil erosion may occur after heavy rainfall. The furrow of the ridges may be widened and
deepened by water running down slopes after heavy precipitation. This is very visible in Eastern Nigeria
and in the west and North West region of Cameroon (around the Bamenda highlands).
4. Monoculture; When a particular crop is cultivated in a given area for many years, that crop may lead to
the exhaustion of specific minerals in the soil. This renders the soil infertile and unconsolidated (loose),
thus liable to surface agents like wind and water.
IV- CONSEQUENCES/EFFECTS/IMPACTS OF SOIL EROSION
1. Soil erosion leads to loss of soil fertility
2. Causes siltation in rivers and lakes
3. Huge financial losses through the purchase of artificial fertilizers
4. Defaces the natural beauty of the environment through the creation of huge gullies
5. It brings about low agricultural yields due to crop failure
6. In areas of pastoral farming, the animals will find it difficult to graze
7. Soil erosion leads to depopulation (out-migration)
8. Destroy the beauty of the landscape or scenery.

V- SOIL CONSERVATION AND IMPROVEMENT

Definition
Soil Conservation is the management of the soil in a way that it does not lose its fertility. This involves putting
in place measures.
The main actors involved are individual farmers who have learned from extension Workers, village
community; farmers’ cooperatives; local councils; Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOS); Governments
through her respective Ministries of Agriculture, the Environment and nature protection.

A. Measures or Ways to Check Soil Erosion/ Measures to Prevent Further Soil Loss

1. Maintaining effective vegetation cover by planting trees and grass. This involves afforestation and re-
afforestation. Vegetation helps to bind the soil together through the roots of plants. It also supplies
organic materials through the leaves. Plants equally reduce the speed of Wind and running water thus,
reduce the rates of erosion. Certain plants and crops, especially leguminous species such as clover, peas,
beans and gorse, are capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen in the soil and thus improving its quality.
Trees also act as wind breaks and shelter-belts. This reduces the risk of wind erosion.
2. Contour ploughing: This involves the making of ridges across a slope to reduce the speed of running
water. This is now practiced on the slopes of the Western Highlands of Cameroon to check erosion.
3. Terracing: This involves the cutting of the slope into steps of flat lands for cultivation (fig 2.0 on lesson
plan). It also reduces the speed of running water. This is practiced on the slopes of the Mandara
mountains in north Cameroon.
4. Controlled grazing: to prevent over grazing induced soil erosion, the number of animals kept on a
grazing land must be within the carrying capacity of the land. This can be achieved by subdividing the
grazing land or ranch into sections called paddocks and the rotate animals from one paddock to another

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 to ensure that no part of the land is over grazed. When one section has been grazed, the animals are
moved to a new area to prevent over grazing.
5. Strip Cultivation: This is when two or more Crops are planted in alternate strips parallel to one another.
Harvesting is done at different times. Sometimes, it involves the cultivation of a portion of land while the
adjacent plots on both sides are allowed to fallow. The uncultivated plots with vegetation cover help to
check the speed of the wind and water. This prevents the entire field from being laid bare at any one time.
6. Planting of wind breaks: Planting of trees in more open areas helps to reduce the speed of wind and
slows down the action of wind erosion.
7. The planting of cover or creeping crops protects the soil from wind and running water.
8. Improved drainage helps to control the flow of water into an area.
9. Mulching: This is the covering of the soil with grass after weeding.

B. Measures or Ways to Maintain Soil Fertility

1. Composting: The use of compost manure can replace lost nutrients in the soil and maintain the fertility
of the soil.
2. The use of artificial fertilizers: This also helps to replace lost minerals such as phosphate, nitrate and
potassium.
3. Crop Rotation: This is a farming practice which involves the growing of different crops in successive
years in the same field so that plant nutrients used by one crop can be replaced by another. It's a solution
to the negative effects of monoculture on soil. In the temperate regions, potatoes which require much
potash but do not exhaust nitrates are rotated with wheat which uses the nitrates in the soil. In the third
year, nitrates are replenished by growing a legume such as beans or clover. In the fourth year, a cereal
can again be grown to take advantage of the replenished nitrates. This technique helps to maintain soil
fertility.
4. Agroforestry: The science of agroforestry has been growing since the mid-1970s. It involves the
integration of forest or trees with crop (agro-silviculture) and livestock (Silvo-pastoralism) production
systems. Agroforestry is a multipurpose measure which helps both to check erosion and to maintain soil
fertility, in addition to other resources which the population can tap from the trees. This may take
different forms such as planting of hedges around farms or along contours, Alley cropping, dot planting
(spontaneous tree planting on farms). In any form, the trees are useful for returning nutrients to the soil
and preventing erosion. For instance, in Senegal, planting and protection of acacia species in fields not
only improves soil fertility and soil structure, but also creates windbreaks to protect crops.

STEPS USE TO PREVENT SOIL EROSION

Sources of Strategies of prevention
Erosion
1. Agriculture - Grow cover crop.
- Plant tall trees in fields to buffer the effects of wind.
- Drive tractors as little as possible.
- Use drip irrigation that put small amount of water in the ground frequently.
- Avoid watering crops with water sprinklers that produce large water drops
on the ground.
- Keep the field as flat as possible to avoid soil eroding downhill.
- Leave leaf litter on the ground to decompose and form humus.
- Construct stone walls to protect farm land.

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 2. Grazing - Move animals throughout the year so they do not consume all the vegetation
animals in one spot.
- Keep animals away from streams banks, where hills are especially prone to
erosion.
- Practice ranching technique to confine animals.
3. Logging and - Reduce the amount of land size that we log and mine.
Mining. - Reduce the number of roads that are built to access logging areas.
- Avoid logging and mining on steep lands.
- Cut only small areas at one time and quickly replant logged and mined areas
with new seedlings or trees.
4. - Reduce the amount of land that we turn into cities, urban areas, parking lots,
Development. etc.
- keep as much green space or green belt in cities as possible such as trip of
trees where plants can grow, flower belts, etc
- Invest in and use new technologies for parking lots that make them
permeable to water in order to reduce run off. For instance use pavement
blocks.
5. Recreational - Avoid using off-road vehicles on hill lands.
Activities. - Stay on designated trails. Do not drive on vegetated areas.
6. Building - Avoid building on steep hills
Construction - Grade surrounding land to distribute water rather than collecting in the
place.
- Construct good drainage net-work to help grain water freely.
- Plant trees around your compound to minimise erosion.

FLOODING
I. DEFINITION
Flooding denotes a situation where land that is initially dry is suddenly submerged under water. There are
three types of floods; Flash floods (highly destructive and surprisive), Rapid on-set floods (destructive), and
Slow on-set floods (non-surprisive).

II. CAUSES
1. High and intensive Rainfall which leads to overflow of river banks (e.g. Bangladesh in India)
2. The breaking up of Dams which release large chunks of water to the flood plains in lowland areas (Maga
dam breakage at river Logone in the Northern region of Cameroon in 2012)
3. Large scale deforestation in the catchment areas (Deforestation in the Himalayas)
4. The occurrence of Tsunamis at seas and oceans caused by Earthquakes and
5. Volcanic eruptions at the sea floor (The 2004 tsunami that hit coastal Asia)
6. The blowing of strong winds and hurricanes across sea and ocean surfaces displacing large amounts of
water to the adjacent coastal towns and cities.
7. The melting of snow and Polar ice caps which release large masses of water to towns and cities
neighboring water bodies leading to increase in sea levels and potential floods (Floods in Netherlands and
Messogiomo in Italy; floods in Tanzania by melting snow at the top of Mt. Kilimanjaro)
8. Poor solid waste disposal which narrows and blocks river channels leading to floods especially in urban
areas (Floods in Douala)

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Accelerating Factors
 Shallowness of the soil due to the impermeable rock layer
 Beneath sea earthquakes causing tsunamis
 The Damming of rivers by Man and Lava intensifies flooding
 Blocked up drainage systems in urban areas
 Deforestation in upland areas
 Over meandering of rivers
III. EFFECTS/CONSEQUENCES/IMPACTS
1. Massive deaths of people and animals (River Mayo KEBI Floods of 2000 claimed the lives of many
people and livestock in Northern Cameroon; Frequent floods of Bangladesh)
2. Destruction of farmlands leading to devastation of crops which coarses not only the subsistence but
economic life of people (the 2000 Mayo KEBI floods destroyed crops such as Millet and Sorghum)
3. The outbreak and spread of diseases especially waterborne such as Cholera, Typhoid, Dysentry.
4. The destruction of economic and social infrastructures such as; Roads, Railways, Bridges, Factories
5. Forced migration to areas not pruned to flooding
6. Traumatization of victims for long periods of time since they loss their loved ones, home, property,
home and business
7. Increase in government spending
8. Positively, flooding leads to the deposit of alluvium on flood plains which leads to the development
fertile alluvial soils
SOLUTIONS/MITIGATIONS
1. Afforestation and Re-afforestation of Catchment areas (the Greenbelt in Yaounde)
2. The construction of Dams across rivers (SONLOULOU, LOM PANGAR, MEKIM, MBAKAOU, BAMENDJIM
in Cameroon)
3. The construction of Retaining walls and Embankments
4. Widening, Deepening, and Straightening of river channels
5. The building of Detention basins to accommodate flood waters and allow more time for people to
evacuate during flooding
6. Restricting of settlement on flood risk areas
7. Making available rescue teams who are skilled and active in rescuing people affected by floods
8. The building of Sea/coastal Defence walls to reduce the effects of waves
9. International co-operation should be intensified as to improve on the techniques of combating this
environmental problem

DEFORESTATION
I- DEFINITION
Deforestation is the removal of the forest vegetation cover thereby exposing the land to environmental
degradation. It is widespread in the tropics where the destruction of this precious land resource is
proceeding so swiftly that a typical landscape scene today shows not rainforest but a scraggly, tree-
cleared wasteland ripe for environment disaster. The most affected regions in Cameroon include the
Southern Cameroon low plateau, the Western highlands and the Northern lowland.
II- CAUSES OF DEFORESTATION
1. Animal rearing: Clearing rural lands for cattle pasture as many countries attempt to become meat
producers and exporters.
2. Rapid logging of woodland: rapid extraction of trees by timber exploiters or lumber industry
without replacement especially in the forested areas. This has been caused by increase demand for
new housing, paper and furniture.
3. Population explosion in the developing countries: more and more peasants are required to
extract a subsistence from inferior land. They are left with no choice rather than cutting forest for

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 both fuel wood and additional crop- raising space and their intrusion prevents most of the trees from
regenerating.
4. Rapid rate of Urbanization. Urbanization and urban growth has increased the demand for space for
the construction of houses. The likely effect of this is urban sprawl.
5. Increase demand for fuel wood: increase demand for fuel wood has led to massive extraction of
forest trees. This is the case of the Western highlands and Northern lowlands.

III- CONSEQUNCES/IMPACTS/EFFECTS OF DEFORESTATION

1. Forest loss would not only mean extinction of millions of species, but also the end of birth because the
evolutional process that produces new species would be terminated.
2. Valuable medicinal plants use to produce drugs to combat potential disease would be irretrievably
lost.
3. It will negatively change our planets climate. Global warming since burning of the remaining forest
adds vast quantities of carbon dioxide to the air.
4. Drying up of watershed leading to a drop in the volume and rate of discharge of rivers. This affects
water as resource.
5. It will trigger drought and desertification resulting in the loss of biodiversity.
6. Forest resources like timber, fuel wood, wildlife, wild fruits, edible leaves and medicinal plants will be
exhausted.
IV- MEASURES TO COMBAT DEFORESTATION
Looking at the important role forest play in our environment, a wide range of measures have been put
in place to combat it depletion. These include
1. Like the case of Cameroon, laws have been enacted to compel timber exploiters to carry out
compulsory felling and planting.
2. The creation of reserves such as the Dja, Campo, Korup, and Bouba -Ndjida etc have been created to
ensure protection, preservation and conservation of Cameroon’s forest resources.
3. Eliminating bush fire as a method of farm preparation and encourage agro- forestry.
4. Promoting community forest. This will enable local communities joint manage their forest resources.
5. The state ensures that forest exploiters obtain licenses before they extract timber.
6. Ensure annual tree planting exercise such as the Operation Green Sahel run by the state in North
Cameroon.

DROUGHT
I- DEFINITION
Drought is a long or prolonged period of dryness or long time without significant rainfall in a
geographical area.

II- CAUSES/ FACTORS AFFECTING THE SEVERITY OF DROUGHTS

a) Climatic factors
1. Past rainfall will affect the amounts of water in surface stores (rivers, lakes) and soil and
groundwater (aquifer) stores.
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 2. Rock type: permeable rocks (e.g. chalk) are able to store more water them impermeable rocks (e.g
clay-rapid run-off into rivers)
3. Temperature will affect the amount of water lost by evaporation
b) Human Factors
1. The size of a country’s population will affect the demand for water
2. The economic wealth of a country will affect demand and its ability to cope with the problems
(alternative water supplies)
3. Land use demands from agriculture (irrigation) and industry
III- CAUSES OF DROUGHT
Some causes of drought include;
1. Failure of the seasonal summer rains.
2. With less rain fall trees and grassland cannot survive and becomes scrub vegetation
3. Less vegetation gives less transpiration, so smaller amount of water vapour is available and
therefore there is less likelihood of rain
4. Lower than average rainfall in spring and early summer.
5. Summer anticyclones (high pressure systems) that become stationary over the UK for several
weeks bringing clear, calm weather
6. Higher than average demand for water in hot weather.
IV- IMPACT/ EFFECTS /CONSEQUESNCES OF DROUGHT
1. Food and water shortages lead to malnutrition, famine, disease and high dead rates
2. Large numbers of people become dependent on food aid program
3. There is migration of people from rural to urban areas causing over population in towns To refugee
camps
4. Water rationing by using street stand pipes or tanker supplies (UK 1995)
5. Reduced flows in rivers concentrate pollutants and reduce oxygen in water causing fish and aquatic
plants to suffer and or die
6. Reduction in yields of crops and grass, may lead to increased food prices
7. Damage to housing from shrinkage and cracking of clay soils
8. Increased fire risk in forests and heath land areas (e.g. new forest, Hampshire) can threaten
property (e.g. California and Sydney 2000)
9. Droughts are often associated with heat waves (high pressure) with risks of air pollution in urban
areas.
V- MANAGING THE EFFECTS OF DROUGHT
 Water, conservation, banning hose pipes washing cars, collecting rain water
 Building new reservoirs or Dams
 Laying pipelines to transfer water from high rainfall areas to areas of high demand (e.g. welsh water to
Birmingham)
SOLUTIONS
 In the short term, provide food aid and water supplies to preventing suffering.
 Improve water supplies by building large reservoirs and drilling deeper wells
 Conserve water in local, small-scale schemes (e.g. building low stone walls across a slope Burkina Faso)
 Improve farming methods by encouraging schemes using sustainable appropriate technologies (e.g.
small scale, locally-made tools, not tractors)
 Provide drought-resistant seed such as millet (Northern Nigeria
 Start tree-planting schemes to reduce soil erosion (Mauritania)
 International action to reduce the causes of global warming.

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 DESERTIFICATION
I- DEFINITION
The continuous encroachment of desertic conditions ininitially productive lands (semi-arid regions) driven
by climatic and/or anthropogenic factors, finally transforming them into deserts. The areas mostly affected
are the stretch of Sahelian countries in Africa viz; Ethiopia, Mali, Sudan, etc.
II- CAUSES OF DESERTIFICATION/DROUGHT
Drought and human activities have led to the Sahel becoming more like a desert, with thin, dry, sandy soils
Bare rock where the soils have been blown away (soil erosion) and Sparse vegetation.
The process of desertification
a) Processes resulting from drought
1. Low rainfall since 1968
2. Soils become dry, aquifers fall, and well dry up
3. Trees die, grass withers, replaced by poor desert scrub crop fail and cattle have only poor pasture
4. Less roots to protect the topsoil, less human; soils become more sandy and dry
5. Wind erosion removes the soil, causing dust storms, leaving bare rock

b) Processes resulting from Human Activities

1. Rapid Population increase: To increase food supplies more crops are grown and more cattle kept
leading to over-cultivation and over-grazing-yields decline and under nourished cattle die, increasing
demand for water from growing population
2. Trees cut down for fuel supplies: Less vegetation; more dry, bare soil; more wind erosion
III- EFFECTS OF DROUGHT AND DESERTIFICATION
1. Food and water shortages lead to malnutrition, famine, disease and high dead rates
2. Large numbers of people become dependent on food aid program
3. There is migration of people
4. From rural to urban areas causing over population in towns
5. To refugee camps
IV- SOLUTIONS/MEASURES TO REDUCE/ MTIGATION
1. In the short term, provide food aid and water supplies to prevent suffering.
2. Improve water supplies by building large reservoirs and drilling deeper wells
3. Conserve water in local, small-scale schemes (e.g building low stone walls across a slope Burkina Faso)
4. Improve farming methods by encouraging schemes using sustainable appropriate technologies (e.g
small scale, locally-made tools, not tractors)
5. Provide drought-resistant seed such as millet (northern Nigeria
6. Start tree-planting schemes to reduce soil erosion (Mauritania)
7. International action to reduce the causes of global warming.

OZONE LAYER DEPLETION

I- DEFINITION
Ozone is an Oxygen gas with three molecules, blue in colour. Good ozone is highly concentrated in the
Stratosphere and Bad ozone in small proportions in the Troposphere. The ozone layer is the region in the
atmosphere where O3 concentration is high, acting as a shield to the Earth as it prevents UV rays from
the sun from reaching the earth’s surface. Ozone layer depletion refers to the disintegration of the O3
layer due to the reaction of O3 with Chlorine and Bromine released from; CFCs (refrigerators, air
conditioners etc.), Nitrous Oxides (Artificial fertilizers), and Halons (Fire Extinguishers).
II- CAUSES
1. The Depletion is initiated by ODS (Ozone Depleting Substances)
2. The release of CFCs (Chloroflurocarbons) from Air conditioners, Refrigerators, Aerosols
3. The release of Halons from fire extinguishers which contain Bromine atoms
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 4. The release of Methyl Bromide from Pesticides
5. Their extremely long life expectancies permit them to gradually but surely destroy
6. the ozone layer and are the main causes of the recent Ozone holes over Antarctica
III- EFFECTS/IMPACTS
1. Increase in Skin cancer victims especially in Australia and other regions nearer the Antarctica
2. Increase in Eye cataracts due to exposure to UV rays
3. Increase in crop diseases which leads to meagre outputs
4. Marine food chains affected as planktons are destroyed
5. Positively, O3 layer depletion offsets the effects of Global warming
IV- PREVENTIVE/MITIGATION STRATEGIES
1. International Agreements and Treaties aimed at eliminating ODSs (Vienna convention of 1985,
Montreal Protocol of 1987)
2. Sensitization of the population of O3 layer protection (September 16 as international day)
3. Avoid buying and using products which contain ODS like; Refrigerators, air conditioners, aerosols,
and fire extinguishers.
4. Use appropriate Pesticides in agriculture; i.e. Pesticides free from Methyl Bromide.
5. If already bought, handle products and Equipment containing ODS with care during
repairs and when disposing them off
V- ADAPTATION STRATEGIES
1. Sensitization on the measure of protecting one’s self against UV rays from the sun
2. Avoid being exposed to solar radiation between 10am and 2pm
3. Adequate protection against UV rays by covering body parts, i.e. wearing long dresses, sun shades,
applying solar cream (Practiced in Australia, New Zealand and Chile)
4. Weather forecasts should incorporate information on UV intensities (as in the United Kingdom)

GLOBAL WARMING
I- DEFINTION
This refers to the sudden and progressive increase in the temperatures of the Earth’s atmosphere (a thin layer of
gas englobing the Earth) and oceans. The Earth’s temperatures have gradually been rising since the Industrial
revolution came into sight.

II- CAUSES
1. Volcanic eruptions which release greenhouse gases (gases that allow short wave radiation from the sun
to pass through to the earth’s surface, but restrict long wave radiation from the earth into space; thus,
bouncing it back to the surface to create a zigzag horizontal pattern which warms the troposphere,
causing rise in temperature), Like sulfur Dioxide alongside lava,
2. Burning of fossil fuels in factories and households which release Carbo dioxide and Sulphur dioxide
3. Mining activities which release greenhouse gases like Methane found in the ground
4. Intensive Agriculture: Paddy rice cultivation in China release large amounts of Methane. besides, animal
dung in areas where cattle rearing is practiced contain much methane.
5. Large scale deforestation which destroys the natural CO2 Absorber that nature has provided to us. Thus,
CO2 amounts keep accumulating in the atmosphere and engendering the greenhouse effect which in
effect leads to global warming
6. Rapid increase in the World’s population.
III- EFFECTS/IMPACTS/CONSEQUENCES
1. The melting of polar ice caps and mountain summit snow (e.g. Mount Kilimanjaro)
2. Rise in sea levels and thus, increase in the tendency for Floods to occur (Netherlands and Southern Messogiomo in
Italy)
3. The Spread of diseases such as; Skin cancer, Cataracts, etc.
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 4. Changes in the Rainfall patterns and thus changes in Agricultural potency
5. Increase in temperatures in initially cold regions, thus, favoring settlement even at foot and valleys of mountains
like in Southern America (Brazil)
6. Decimation of some varieties of Biodiversity due to destruction of their habitats and their inability to survive the
temperature increase Intensification in the occurrence of Drought and Desertification
III- MITIGATION STRATEGIES
1. These are the measures at the man’s disposal in order to prevent the further occurrence of Global warming
2. International conventions held by industrialized countries to reduce greenhouse gas emissions e.g. Rio De Janeiro
Summit of 1992, the KYOTO Protocol 1997, the Paris Conference on Climate Change of 2015 Code named COP 21
3. Investment in Recycling technologies in order to save our resources and save our environment
4. Diverting from fossil fuel use to alternative sources of energy such as; Solar, Wind, Biomass, Geothermal, Waves
and HEP which are cleaner sources
5. Adopting and implementing Re-afforestation and Afforestation Schemes (e.g Operation Green Sahel in Cameroon
and Massive tree replanting in Haiti
6. Responsible Behaviors by reducing or avoiding the use of machines that can pollute at the advantage of energy
efficient ones such as Electric cars, Bio fuels, Solar driven appliances, etc.
IV- ADAPTATION STRATEGIES
1. These are the strategies to reduce the impact of Global Warming.
2. The construction of defensive walls to protect low-lying coastal regions from Flooding
3. Encouraging research in the development of Drought and Desertification-resistant crops
4. Improving Water supplies and using them more efficiently especially in Arid-pruned regions
5. Practicing fire safety when outdoors and keeping an eye on fire bans in your area
6. Developing better ways of predicting and preparing for weather extremes such as Tropical storms or
typhoons

POLLUTION
I- MEANING
This is the contamination of air, land or water making it unfit human consumption
Types
There are three types of pollution of the environment, namely land, water and air pollution.
Areas severely affected by pollution are urban industrial zones like
 The core industrial region of western Europe e.g. Ruhr coal field, Nord coalfields and Lorraine iron
ore field
 Seas such as the Mediterranean Sea
 Lakes such as Lake Geneva in Switzerland Lake Ontario in Canada
 Rivers such as the Rhine in Europe and the Mississippi in USA
 Agricultural regions such as Paris basin
II- CAUSES
The causes of pollution are many and varied and include:
1. Industralization
This is the main cause of pollution in the developed world. For example, large amount of chemical wastes from
Swiss industries are deposited in the Rhine River.
 Industries in the Ruhr region deposit 12.000tons of oil in the Rhine river each year.
 Warm water from the cooling of machines from the Swiss industries and nuclear stations are flushed into
the river Rhine yearly.
 The emission of fumes of Nitrogen and Sulphur dioxide from the Iron and steel industry cause air
pollution and acid rain.
 Abandoned script metals from automobile Iron and steel industries causes land pollution in the core
industrial region in Western Europe.
2. Exploitation of minerals

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 This is causes pollution. For example, salt mining from the French industries is a major cause of pollution of
the Rhine river coal mining is a major cause of land and water pollution in the Ruhr industrial region in Germany.
3. Agricultural intensification:
The use of chemical fertilizers, pesticides herbicides and fungicides contaminate underground water sources and
rivers. For example, in 1969 chemical fertilizers was accidentally released into the river Rhine and this led to the
dead of over 40 million fish
4. Population concentration:
When the population increases, the problem of waste disposal becomes very severe. Wastes such as plastics, tin
cans synthetics etc. that do not decompose or rots because land pollutions, River passing through densely
populated areas are polluted in this way

Ocean pollution Municipal and agricultural pollution

CONSEQUENCES

1. The emission of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere causes global warming and acid rains
2. Water pollution destroys aquatic organism
3. The amount of drinking water is greatly reducing
4. Polluted water corrodes machines in industries
5. At low tides polluted waters smells and is a nuisance to human health.
CONTROLS
International control e.g. five states which use the river Rhine formed the Rhine commission in 1963. This
commission identified the nature and causes of pollution of the Rhine river
In 1976, the Bonn convention was signed to proposed measures to stop the pollution of the Rhine.
The Dutch have built large purification plants and reservoirs.
Fine are charged for illegal dumping of waste
French have resolved to store underground potash wastes
A B

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 A A POWER PLANT AND ITS EMISSIONS BEFORE EMISSION CONTROL EQUIPMENT WERE ADDED. B
YORK CITY SMOG OVER NEW

PHOTOCHEMICAL SMOG

Smog is as thick, ground level fog caused when water droplets become polluted by chemicals and gases.

Urban areas are experiencing an increase in the number of summer days with smog. Cities such as Calcutta,
Mexico City, Athens and Los Angeles are badly affected.

CAUSES

Smog is more common:

 On clear, calm, hot summer days (higher UV radiation)

 Where traffic is heavy and slow moving (higher pollution levels)
 When cars are older with poorly maintained engines

The formation of smog

CONSEQUENCES

 Very unhealthy (increased hospital admissions and can be fatal to older people
 Causes irritation to the eyes and conjunctivitis
 Causes breathing problems, increases asthma attacks.
 Detrimental to plants and animals

SOLUTIONS

 Restrict cars in city centers, reduce lorry traffic

 Improve and monitor engine efficiency
 Improve electric powered cars
 Improve facilities for bicycles

ACID DEPOSITION

Acid deposition is the fall-out from the atmosphere of acid compounds either in rain as acid rain, or in very small
particles as dry deposition. Acid rain was first recorded in Scandinavia during the 1950s. It is now recognized as
affecting a large number of other countries including Canada, the USA, Germany, Scotland and Poland. It is thus
one of the most discussed environmental perils of recent years.

HOW ACID RAIN IS FORM.

It is caused by considerable quantities of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides release in the atmosphere as fossil
fuels (coal and natural gas) are burned. These pollutants combine with water vapour contain in the air to form
dilute solution of sulfuric and nitric acids which are subsequently washed out of the atmosphere by rain or
other forms of precipitation.

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 HOW ACID RAIN IS FORM.

CAUSES OF ACID DEPOSITION

5. Industrialized complexes with high sulfur and nitrogen emission. The destruction capacities of Acid
rains have greatly been enhance by this factor. This is the case of the industrialized countries of Europe
and America.
6. Volcanic eruptions emitting large quantities of sulfur into the atmosphere.
7. Forest fire either during logging or slash and burn to open farm lands.
8. Decomposition of dead matter or organism by bacteria.

CONSEQUENCES
 Acid rain releases nutrients in the soil which are carried away by percolating water (leaching); plants
trees suffer severe stress.
 Coniferous forests trees are dying, acid attacks the pine needles causing them to drop; greater risk from
been devastated. More than 25% of the forests in Sweden, Switzerland, Germany and Austria have been
severely damaged.
 Lakes and streams become so acidified that they can no longer support any life at all, plants, fish or
amphibians, (melt water from snow is very acidic )
 Lichens store chemicals which, when eaten by mice, rabbits and dear, contaminated the food chain
(foxes, hinds of prey)
 Acid soils restrict crop growth and reduce yields.
 Health hazard since air and domestic water supply are contaminated.
 Buildings and monument are wearing away caused by acid rain through chemical weathering.
 Dry deposition can affect health: respiratory problems and headaches

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ACID RAINS DAMAGE CULTURAL MONOMENTS LIKE BUILDING AND STATUES. ACID RAIN HAS KILLED
TREES IN THIS FOREST IN THE CZECH REPUBLIC
Solutions
 Increase height of power station china reduces local dry deposition but increases acid rain.
 Reduce So2 emissions from power stations by:
 Burning low Sulphur coal-expensive to import
 Fitting filters to chimneys-expensive could increase price of electricity
 Change to gas increasing use of natural gas in recent years, and decrease in coal, have reduce emission
by over 40% since 1988 in the UK
 Reduce nitric oxide emissions from cars by fitting catalytic converters.
 Use alternative energy sources- hydro, solar, wind, tidal.
 International agreements
 Add lime (alkaline) to lakes to restore PH-only a temporary solution
 Increase public awareness- reduces energy demand and use of cars.
Sources & causes

The most serious polluters are the large-scale processing industries which tend to form agglomerations as they
have similar location requirements. The impacts of such large industries agglomerations, may spread pollutants
(both dry and wet) well beyond the locality and region to cross international borders, though at reducing
intensity from emission site. For example, prevailing winds in Europe carry pollution from west to east. Thus the
problems of acid rain in the Scandinavia are partly due to industrial activities in Britain. This is why in the 1980s
neighbouring counties sent a “dirty” picture postcard to Britain with the inscription “we love your country but
not your pollution”.
Also pollution in Alaska was traced back to the Rhur industrial area in Germany.
All the gases cited contribute to the contamination of the atmosphere, but the main are NOx. They come from
vehicle exhausts itself, but others are generated when exhaust gases react with air and sunlight. For example,
exhaust gases react with strong sunlight to produce poisonous ozone gases that damages plant growth, and in
some cases, human health. It is estimated that over 90% of SO2 that pollutes the atmosphere comes from
industrial and power stations

Figure 8.73: Illustrations of atmospheric pollution associated with industrialisation in the UK; Air
pollution (left) and Emission of Smoke between 1950 and 1970 (right)

Source: Adopted from Guinness et al 1999: 454

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