NSW Department of Education

Physics Module 8 – From

the Universe to the Atom
 Physics Module 8 – From the Universe to the Atom | 1

Contents
Teaching the Year 12 modules.............................................................................................................................

Course overview......................................................................................................................................................

Module summary.....................................................................................................................................................

Big ideas.................................................................................................................................................................

Evidence..................................................................................................................................................................

The development, role and limitations of theories and models in science..............................................................

Conservation of energy...........................................................................................................................................

Relationship to other modules.................................................................................................................................

Core concepts........................................................................................................................................................

Origin of the elements.............................................................................................................................................

Quantisation – charge and energy changes occur in discrete quantities................................................................

Developing models of the atom...............................................................................................................................

Radioactivity............................................................................................................................................................

Energy-mass equivalence – there is a quantifiable relationship between mass and energy..................................

The Standard Model – and what’s next...................................................................................................................

Opportunities for extended concepts..................................................................................................................

Average binding energy per nucleon.......................................................................................................................

Further nucleosynthesis reactions...........................................................................................................................

Beyond E=mc 2......................................................................................................................................................

Australia’s contribution to particle physics...............................................................................................................

Developing models of the atom...............................................................................................................................

Alternative conceptions and misconceptions....................................................................................................

Star colour and its relationship to temperature........................................................................................................

The half-life model and activity................................................................................................................................

Models of the atom..................................................................................................................................................

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The Standard Model................................................................................................................................................

Conceptual difficulties..........................................................................................................................................

Scales of time and space........................................................................................................................................

Exponential and logarithmic functions.....................................................................................................................

Schrödinger’s contribution.......................................................................................................................................

Suggested teaching strategies............................................................................................................................

Origin of the elements.............................................................................................................................................

Developing models of the atom...............................................................................................................................

IQ8-2: How is it known that atoms are made up of protons, neutrons and electrons?................23

IQ8-3: How is it known that classical physics cannot explain the properties of the atom?..........23

Quantum mechanical nature of the atom................................................................................................................

Properties of the nucleus.............................................................................................................24

Deep inside the atom...............................................................................................................................................

Suggested investigations.....................................................................................................................................

Origin of the elements.............................................................................................................................................

Structure of the atom...............................................................................................................................................

Modelling Millikan’s oil drop experiment......................................................................................26

Modelling evidence for the nuclear model of the atom................................................................26

Quantum mechanical nature of the atom.....................................................................................27

Properties of the nucleus.............................................................................................................28

Deep inside the atom...................................................................................................................28

Resources..............................................................................................................................................................

YouTube..................................................................................................................................................................

PhET simulations.....................................................................................................................................................

The Perimeter Institute............................................................................................................................................

Appendix................................................................................................................................................................

Appendix 1 – modelling evidence for an expanding Universe.................................................................................

The use of models........................................................................................................................33

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References.............................................................................................................................................................

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Teaching the Year 12 modules

The new Stage 6 Physics course was implemented in NSW schools in 2018-2019. This syllabus
incorporates new content and learning activities such as Depth Studies. The syllabus is designed
around inquiry questions and formal assessment tasks emphasise the skills for working
scientifically.

The Year 12 course provides avenues for students to apply the concepts they were introduced to
in Year 11 to motion in two dimensions, electromagnetism, theories of light, the atom and the
Universe.

Therefore, pedagogies that promote inquiry and deep learning should be employed in the Physics
classroom. The challenge presented by the additional content and the change in pedagogical
approach were the catalysts for the preparation of these module guides for Stage 6. These guides
are intended to assist teachers deliver Physics effectively by outlining overarching concepts (big
ideas), core and extended ideas, strategies for teaching the modules, uncovering of alternative
conceptions, and strategies to address them. The guides support the teacher in facilitating the
development of deep knowledge structures, such as the relationships between concepts. The
module guides do not cover all aspects of the syllabus, as that was not within the scope of the
project.

It is essential that teachers note that the module guides do not substitute the syllabus, but only
support teachers to teach it. The information contained in these documents is correct at the time of
publication. While every effort has been made to eliminate errors, any errors or omission that are
identified after the release of these documents will be corrected and released as resource updates.
It is recommended that teachers access Science Stage 6 for the latest version of these documents.

Course overview

The Year 11 course introduces fundamental concepts of motion, forces, fields, energy and
momentum. It provides opportunities for students to develop Working Scientifically skills, including
those related to the quantitative analysis and modelling of physical systems.

The Year 12 course further develops these concepts and applies them to the analysis of
phenomena and technologies that are relevant to society and to contemporary physics. The Law of
conservation of energy, along with the development of theories and models form common themes

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across each of the modules. The role of scientific investigation and evidence in advancing our
understanding is explored in detail in modules 7 and 8.

Inquiry questions are included in the course content and are used to frame the syllabus. The depth
of understanding required to fully address the inquiry questions may vary. This allows for
differentiation of the course content to cater for the diversity of learners.

During the teaching of the Year 11 course, it is expected that students have been provided
opportunities to develop all seven of the Working Scientifically skills. Ideally, these would be
embedded into the teaching of the Knowledge and Understanding components of the course. In
preparation for the Year 12 course, students in Year 11 could benefit from work that engages them
in the following areas:

 Propose hypotheses, design and conduct valid and reliable practical investigations that
effectively use technologies to collect and analyse data. Teachers should look for
opportunities to engage students in these beyond where the syllabus explicitly states the
need to conduct a practical investigation.

 Construct and analyse graphical data for both primary and secondary sources. This should
include describing relationships between variables, particularly time-varying quantities such
as displacement and velocity. Emphasis should be placed on extracting qualitative and
quantitative information from the gradient or the area under a graph.

 Evaluate and improve the quality of data collected. Students should be encouraged to
recognise errors, uncertainty and limitations in the data they collect. Practical investigations
provide opportunities to practice quantifying errors, including the calculation of absolute and
relative errors, along with techniques such as the use of a line-of-best fit to minimise the
impact of random errors in measurement.

 Assess the uses, benefits and limitations of various types of scientific models. Models are a
powerful tool in science, allowing phenomena to be more easily explained and predicted by
capturing and highlighting only the most important features of a system. For example, when
analysing gravitational potential energy (GPE) in module 2, it is beneficial to employ a model
in which acceleration due to gravity is a constant 9.8 ms-2 and arbitrarily set GPE=0 at the
Earth’s surface. This model is suitable for analysing the motion of objects close to the Earth’s
surface including projectiles, pendulums, rollercoasters, and so on. However, students
should also be encouraged to consider the limitations of such models. For example, the
model above would not be appropriate, or effective, for analysing the motion of satellites as
acceleration due to gravity cannot reasonably be considered constant over large distances.

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 Studying the rates of change of quantities including displacement, velocity, temperature and
energy to support deeper insights into physical phenomena. Rates of change are particularly
important to the understanding of electromagnetism in Year 12.

 Collect relevant information from secondary sources and determine the accuracy, reliability
and validity. Many of the investigations will require students to obtain information from the
Internet or other sources. Students will benefit from learning how to access suitable
information and appreciate how new evidence can change prevailing views.

 Developing an awareness of the interconnectedness of physics concepts, including the

application of conservation of energy and momentum to the understanding of diverse
phenomena.

 Developing confidence in the selection and manipulation of units for physical quantities.
Students should be provided opportunities to practice converting units, along with calculating
and communicating quantities using scientific notation.

 Creating and analysing diagrams that represent vector quantities including free-body, field
and ray diagrams. Students should develop confidence in resolving 2-dimensional vectors
into their components and in adding multiple vectors to find the resultant.

Module summary

This module broadly covers astronomy, atomic physics, nuclear physics and particle physics. The
first inquiry question focuses on the origin of the Universe to the formation of matters, celestial
systems and evolution of stars. The second and third enquiry questions retrace the development of
the atomic theory from the plum pudding model by J. J. Thomson to the current model. The fourth
inquiry question investigates the properties of the nucleus and the fifth explores the development of
the Standard Model of matter.

Module 8 explores the following inquiry questions:

 IQ8-1: What evidence is there for the origins of the elements?

 IQ8-2: How is it known that atoms are made up of protons, neutrons and electrons?

 IQ8-3: How is it known that classical physics cannot explain the properties of the atom?

 IQ8-4: How can the energy of the atomic nucleus be harnessed?

 IQ8-5: How is it known that human understanding of matter is still incomplete?

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Big ideas

Evidence

This module focusses on the role of experimental evidence in developing robust explanatory
models that deepen our understanding of the Universe, from its beginning to its current state and
further to its future. Scientific discovery is the process or product of a successful scientific inquiry
with the objects of discovery being things, events, properties as well as theories. This module
guides students through the inquiries that led to the discovery of the expanding Universe, the origin
of the elements, the developing models of the atom and ultimately to our current understanding of
matter.

The gathering of experimental evidence is in turn strongly dependent on the development of

technology. New technology allows us to observe phenomena that was previously unseen,
challenge our understanding of the world and catalyse the formation of new theories and models.
The development of vacuum tubes, harnessing of radioactive sources and construction of
increasingly powerful particle accelerators have shaped the development of modern physics.

The development, role and limitations of theories and

models in science

Scientific theories explain natural phenomena. They should have explanatory power, be able to
generate useful predictions and be confirmed by a significant body of experimental evidence. This
dependence on evidential support makes theories open to criticism and potential abandonment if
they are unable to explain new experimental observations. It has been argued, notably by Karl
Popper, that in addition to being informative, a good scientific theory should also be surprising and
in a sense, improbable.

Models are representations of ideas, objects or phenomena that aid understanding and allow
predictions to be made. Their value lies in their ability to simplify and communicate complex or
unobservable phenomena, often drawing on more familiar contexts that have similar properties to
the phenomena they represent. When employing models, it is important that their limitations are
recognised. As with many theories, models are developed to fit experimental observations and are
subject to revision in response to new evidence. This module outlines the historical development of
atomic models, highlighting the important experimental observations that have catalysed advances
in our understanding.

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Conservation of energy

Conservation laws are important in physics as they allow some behaviours of a system to be
predicted without the need to consider the underlying mechanics. In Module 2, students applied
conservation of momentum and energy to predict the motion of objects resulting from collisions
and changes in vertical position without the need to invoke Newton’s laws of motion. In Module 8,
students will apply these laws to the investigation of phenomena occurring at the smallest scales of
space and time. The discrete transformations of the quantum world are investigated, and
conservation laws play an important role in making predictions and in suggesting and verifying
models of matter.

The mass-energy equivalence extends the conservation of energy to include matter, allowing
matter to be considered as a form of energy that can be transformed into or from other forms of
energy.

Conservation laws can be used to describe which processes can and cannot occur in nature.
Conservation of mass/energy, momentum, charge, leptons and baryons provide a framework for
describing reactions and transformations that can and cannot occur. This is applied to nuclear
transformations, production of emission spectra and to the production and transformation of
fundamental particles.

Relationship to other modules

During modules 1-7, students have developed their understanding of a diverse range of physics
concepts. In Module 8, students are required to apply this understanding in new contexts. For this
reason, it is suggested that From the Universe to the Atom is taught as the final module in Year 12.

 Quantisation is first introduced with relation to light in the photoelectric effect and is further
developed to include the energy levels of electrons within the atom.

 The law of conservation of energy is applied across all modules and is critical to the
interpretation of experimental evidence for models of the atom and to understanding nuclear
physics.

 A sound understanding of diffraction, introduced in Module 7, is required to interpret the

experimental evidence for de Broglie’s matter waves, namely the Davisson-Germer
experiment. The concept that particles have wave-like properties further develops the wave-
particle duality of light from Module 7.

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 The investigation of spectroscopy in Module 7 overlaps much of the content in this module,
as does the energy-mass equivalence relationship.

Core concepts

Origin of the elements

Students investigate the origin of the elements, beginning shortly after the ‘Big Bang’ with the
transformation of radiation into matter, through to the nucleosynthesis of heavy elements in stars.
Our current understanding of the physical processes involved at each stage along with the
evidence supporting this understanding should be presented. Skills in constructing and interpreting
nuclear equations and Hertzsprung-Russell diagrams are central to understanding and
communicating the relevant concepts and processes.

Quantisation – charge and energy changes occur in discrete

quantities

Quantum physics describes and explains the nature at the smallest scales of space, time and
energy. Fundamental to this is the hypothesis of quantisation, which asserts that certain physical
properties can only take on discrete values rather than the continuous range of values allowed in
classical physics. In turn, a quantum (plural: quanta) describes the smallest allowable amount of a
property (charge, energy, mass, and so on) that can be involved in an interaction. Module 7
introduced the quantisation of energy in Einstein’s photon model of light to explain the photoelectric
effect. Module 8 extends this concept to include the quantisation of electric charge and of the
energy levels of electrons in atoms. Quantum models of the atom have been successful in
explaining and predicting phenomena occurring at the atomic and subatomic scales. The Bohr
model of the hydrogen atom is a notable example and is studied in detail in this module.

Developing models of the atom

John Dalton’s ‘billiard ball’ model of the atom, proposed in 1803, was the generally accepted view
of atomic structure for 100 years. Observations of cathode rays, enabled by the invention of the
Geissler tube in 1855 (later modified by Sir William Crookes in 1878) challenged this model,

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resulting in the development of Thomson’s ‘Plum Pudding’ model following the discovery of the
electron and its properties.

Radioactive substances became an important tool for revealing the internal structure of the atom
as demonstrated with sources of alpha particles being integral to the Geiger-Marsden and
Chadwick investigations which resulted in the nuclear model of the atom.

Bohr’s model of the atom, although limited by its inclusion of the classical conception of electrons
orbiting a nucleus, is useful in explaining the emission spectra of hydrogen by quantising their
allowable energy levels (more accurately his model quantised the angular momentum of
electrons). By including the conception of electrons orbiting the nucleus, both Rutherford’s and
Bohr’s atomic models were unable to account for the stability of their orbits. Electromagnetic theory
suggests that when a charged particle is accelerated, it will emit radiation, losing energy and
eventually spiralling in towards the nucleus. The Bohr model was also unable to explain the
spectra produced by more complex atoms, the relative intensity of spectral lines or the splitting of
energy levels in the presence of strong magnetic fields.

The reconceptualization of electrons in the atom as both particles and waves led to the
development of the wave equation by Erwin Schrödinger. His wave equation could be used to
accurately calculate the energy levels of electrons in atoms and was later used in the development
of quantum mechanics.

Radioactivity

The discovery of radioactivity is closely related to the development of the nuclear model of the
atom. First discovered in 1896 by physicist Henri Becquerel, radioactivity demonstrated that the
atom was neither indivisible nor immutable. The analysis of the spontaneous decay of atomic
nuclei will require students to describe the properties of alpha, beta and gamma radiation in terms
of their penetrating power and ionising potential. The model of half-life in radioactive decay uses
−kt
the exponential relationship N t ¿ N 0 e to investigate and predict the future activity of radioactive
samples. In addition to these spontaneous decay processes, students will investigate a range of
artificial nuclear transmutations including nuclear fission and fusion. All decays and transmutations
should be described using nuclear equations.

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Energy-mass equivalence – there is a quantifiable

relationship between mass and energy

Module 7 introduces the mass-energy equivalence relationship E=mc2, predicted by special

relativity. A suitable interpretation of this equation is to consider mass, m, to be just a form or store
of energy. In this way, nuclear decays and transmutations can be analysed and accounted for
using the law of conservation of energy, with mass simply being transformed in other forms of
energy or vice versa.

Mass defect and binding energy are useful models for understanding and predicting the energy
released in reactions. The mass of a nucleus is always less than the sum of the individual nucleons
(protons and neutrons) that it contains. The difference between these two masses is known as the
mass defect ∆ m, which is a measure of the binding energy of the nucleus. The two values are
related by the expression inding energy=∆ mc 2 . Separating a nucleus into its constituent
components would require an energy equal to its binding energy.

The Standard Model – and what’s next

This module explores the Standard Model which describes the fundamental particles that make up
matter and mediate the fundamental forces. The Standard Model was essentially completed in
1967 and is based on the notion that the world is made up of fundamental particles. Fundamental
particles are point-like objects that have properties associated with them, for example mass,
charge, spin. That is, they have no size, cannot be divided into smaller components, and they have
no internal structure.

The Standard Model describes the 12 fermions, the quarks and leptons, which make up all the
matter in the Universe along with the ‘rules’ for how they interact with one another. The ‘rules’ are
the two theories that describe the fundamental interactions (forces).

 Quantum chromodynamics (QCD), describes the strong interaction between quarks using
gluons as a force carrier particle (boson).

 The electroweak theory, describes both the electromagnetic interaction (carried by the
photon) and the weak interaction (carried by the W and Z bosons).

The electron was the first fundamental particle to be discovered. Protons and neutrons have since
been shown not to be themselves fundamental but instead to be combinations of quarks. The

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Standard Model describes forces by the exchange of force-carrying particles called bosons, with
each fundamental force having a corresponding boson(s).

The Standard Model is a triumph of modern physics, representing our best understanding of
fundamental building blocks of matter and three of the four fundamental forces. Studies of the
Standard Model should focus on the important evidence leading to its discovery and subsequent
testing with an emphasis on the role of particle accelerators. Limitations of the model, particularly
relating to gravity, as well as future directions for research should also be considered.

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Opportunities for extended concepts

Average binding energy per nucleon

Introducing the quantity of average binding energy per nucleon. This quantity can be used to
predict whether a given fission or fusion reaction is likely to result in the release of energy from the
nucleus. This concept can be applied to explain the iron limit of nucleosynthesis in post-main
sequence stars as well as the choice of fuel for nuclear fission or fusion reactions.

Further nucleosynthesis reactions

Investigating a wider range of nucleosynthesis reactions. Both listed nucleosynthesis reactions

(proton-proton chain and CNO cycle) occur in main sequence stars and result in the same net
1 4 +¿+2 γ +2 ν ¿
reaction that is 4 1H ⟶ 2He +2 e . The two neutrinos,2 v , produced in this reaction are often
ignored without significant consequences for student understanding. However, for completeness
students could be introduced to the conservation of lepton number and other quantised properties
to account for their production.

The fusion reactions in post-main sequence stars including the triple-alpha reaction are quite
straight forward by comparison to the CNO cycle. A comparison of the average binding energies
for hydrogen, helium and carbon provide students with a sound explanation for the relative
lifetimes of main sequence and post-main sequence stars along with the need for energy input
from events such as supernovae to synthesise elements heavier than iron.

Beyond E=mc
2

Introducing students to the more general form of this expression can assist in building conceptual
links between the topics studied in Modules 7 & 8. (See minute physics E=mc2 is incomplete –
duration 2:50)

This equation can be written in a more general form as follows:

2 2
E = ( m c ) + ( pc )
2 2

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Essentially, it states that the energy stored in a particle is related to both its rest mass, m, and its
momentum, p. E=mc² is Incomplete (duration 2:50) from Minute Physics provides a clear
introduction to this extended topic and outlines a method for visualising the total energy relating to
Pythagoras’s theorem.

This general expression simplifies to more familiar expressions for two special cases:

2
 When a particle is not moving ( p=0), then E=mc2 . In this case we often write E0 =mc

where E0 refers to the rest energy of the particle

 When a particle has no mass (for example a photon) then E=pc . This expression describes
the relationship between the energy and momentum of a photon. This can be linked to the
formulation of de Broglie’s matter wave equation.

The particles produced by collisions in particle accelerators are more easily understood by
incorporating their momentum as well as their rest energy. For example, unstable particles
including Z-bosons are produced and studied in experiments at the LHC. These particles quickly
transform into other more stable particles so they cannot be detected directly. Their properties
including their rest mass is ‘reconstructed’ by studying their transformation (decay) products.

One of the paths by which the Z-boson transforms results in the production of muon-antimuon
pairs. Their momenta are measured by the curvature of their tracks through the particle detectors.

When a particle’s speed is near the speed of light, its momentum increases as described by
special relativity, that is

m0 v
pv =
√ ( 1−v 2
/ c2 )

This means that the energy stored in the muon’s momentum continues to increase with higher
speeds whilst its rest energy remains constant. At ultra-relativistic speeds the rest mass becomes
insignificant and we can closely approximate the energy as the magnitude of the particle
momentum. This approximation allows the total energy content of each muon pair to be
determined from their momenta alone.

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Figure 1 – graph showing the relative contributions of rest energy and momentum to the total energy content of a particle

From the above graph we can see that a particle with a speed = 0.9985c (or 99.85% the speed of
light), that its momentum (18.24) is very close to its total energy (18.27). That is, the momentum is
within 1-2% the total energy. Try changing the slider on this Desmos interactive graph.

Australia’s contribution to particle physics

Australia makes significant contributions to the investigation and application of particle physics.
Through ANSTO’s landmark facilities, including the Australian Centre for Neutron Scattering, the
Australian Synchrotron and the OPAL multi-purpose reactor, Australia supports materials, medical
and particle physics research as well as producing a range of radiopharmaceuticals for medical
use.

The Australian Synchrotron is an example of a particle accelerator that is used in the testing and/or
validating of theories. It accelerates electrons to just under the speed of light, about 299,792
kilometres a second, around a 200-metre circular track using powerful magnets. This produces
synchrotron radiation in the form of intense beams of light more than a million times brighter than
the sun. This intense light can be used to study a wide range of molecular structures including
human tissues, plants, metals and more.

Calibrating TAIPAN, one of ANSTO’s neutron diffraction instruments is a detailed extension activity
that would be suitable as part of a depth study based on this module. In completing this activity
students are required to use Excel to process, analyse and model real data collected as part of

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ANSTO’s operating procedures. The activity addresses the need for calibration of measuring
instruments and assesses random and systematic errors that affect these measurements. It would
be most suited for students with a keen interest in mathematics as it reinforces many techniques
employed in Stage 6 mathematics.

As partner of the ARC Centre of Excellence for Dark Matter Particle Physics, ANSTO is
collaborating in the construction and operation of a new dark matter experiment located in Victoria.
The Stawell Underground Physics Laboratory (SUPL) will house a state-of-the-art detector 729 m
underground at the Stawell gold mine and will attempt to directly detect dark matter particles as
they interact with the doped sodium iodide crystals in the SABRE experiment. Each interaction
produces a flash of light which can be detected and measured.

Developing models of the atom

As an alternative to the ‘Rolling with Rutherford’ activity outlined in the suggested investigation
section, CERN Science Gateway have developed a 3D-printable experiment to model the evidence
supporting the nuclear model of the atom. Interchangeable representations of different atomic
models are placed under the centre cover and must be predicted using the scattering patterns
observed. Students could potentially predict, collect and present detailed data and analysis
relevant to the development of atomic models using this apparatus.

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Alternative conceptions and misconceptions

Star colour and its relationship to temperature

Students will have encountered the use of colours to represent temperatures. The most common of
these, the use of ‘colour temperature’ for describing the ‘warmth’ or ‘coolness’ of colours,
particularly for LED lighting, can be problematic. Most colour temperature scales provide a
quantitative kelvin scale ranging from 2000 – 6500 K, which corresponds to the colour of stars with
a similar effective temperature. However, the use of ‘warm white’ to describe low temperatures and
‘cool white’ to describe high temperatures is inconsistent with the model required.

The half-life model and activity

The half-life model demonstrates the predictable nature of decay of radioactive substances. It is a
simple and valuable model that can be used to compare the stability of radioactive isotopes and
predict the activity of a radioactive source at some time in the future.

Students will often try to map the features of this model to the properties of individual nuclei, giving
them a predictable and deterministic rate of decay.

The half-life model relies on the law of large numbers, with its predictable nature arising from the
large number of atoms in a sample. The behaviour of each nucleus is ultimately probabilistic, with
each radioactive nucleus having a certain probability per unit time to decay.

Higher probabilities of decay per unit time correspond with shorter half-lives when observations are
scaled up to the very large numbers of nuclei present in even a tiny sample.

Models of the atom

The nature of the atomic world is vastly different to the macroscopic world of our everyday
experience. Teachers and students often employ models in the form of analogies or pictorial
representations to apply some familiar characteristics of the macroscopic world to aid their
descriptions and explanations of atomic phenomena.

For example, drawing the generations of fundamental particles as balls of increasing size to
correspond with their increasing mass. According to the Standard Model, all fundamental particles

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are point-like objects, having properties such as mass, charge and spin but they could each be
infinitely small. Instead, physicists describe an effective size for them based on their ‘cross section’
which is a measure of how easily they are to hit.

Many analogies are very effective, but they can, along with the terminology used to describe early
models of the atom, potentially reinforce alternative conceptions and impede student
understanding of the Standard Model. See the suggested teaching strategies for developing
models of the atom for more details on student conceptions relating to this topic.

The Standard Model

The Standard Model is not actually a model. It is an incredibly successful theory that provides an
effectively complete description of the subatomic particles and forces (except for gravity). The
success of this theory is in part due to its simplistic nature, being guided only by quantum
mechanics, relativity and the data that was available in the 1960’s when it was proposed.

In the decades following, the Standard Model has been repeatedly tested using increasingly
precise experiments and yet there are no significant discrepancies between the predictions of the
theory and the experimental observations.

It should be noted that the Standard Model does have some limitations. For example, it does not
predict the masses of the fermions (quarks and leptons). These, along with some other values,
must be measured experimentally and input into the theory in order to make predictions. Despite
this, the theory is arguably the most successful scientific theory ever proposed.

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Conceptual difficulties

Scales of time and space

The phenomena studied in this module generally occur on a scale of time and/or space that is
difficult or impossible for students to observe directly. The expansion of the Universe, radioactive
decay of nuclei along with atomic models and the Standard Model are notable examples. Models
and analogies can be effective aids for developing student understanding and intuition about these
phenomena.

Effective use of analogies requires an understanding of what an analogy is and how it can support
learning. Analogies are comparisons of the similarities of complex or unfamiliar science concepts
(the target) in terms of something familiar to the learner (the analog). When employing analogies to
support student learning it is crucial that care is taken to scaffold them by making explicit both the
similarities and differences between the analog and target concepts.

Further details on the use of analogies in science can be found in ‘Making science concepts
meaningful to students: teaching with analogies’ by Shawn M. Glynn.

Exponential and logarithmic functions

The introduction of radioactivity concepts requires students to substitute into and manipulate
exponential decay functions. A student’s familiarity and confidence in using these functions will be
influenced by the level of mathematics incorporated into their pattern of study. For example:

 Students studying Mathematics Standard 2 are introduced to simple exponential

relationships of the form y=a x or y=a− x in Year 12.

 Students studying Mathematics Advanced complete a topic on exponential and logarithmic

functions in Year 11. This includes exponential functions of the form y=a x along with the
modelling of exponential functions to solve practical problems.

 Students studying Mathematics Extension 1 are required to manipulate, substitute into and
apply exponential functions of the form N (t )= Aekt as part of a subtopic on rates of change in
Year 11. Radioactive decay is also suggested as a relevant application in the syllabus.

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Schrödinger’s contribution

The mathematics of Schrödinger’s wave equation go far beyond the scope of high school
mathematics. However, the purpose and impact of Schrödinger’s contribution is still relatively
accessible to students.

Following Louis de Broglie’s proposition that electrons have both wave and particle behaviours and
h
his matter waves, λ= , Schrödinger sought to formalise this wave nature with an appropriate
mv
wave equation. His equation was a success, as it allowed the energies of electrons to be reliably
calculated and corresponded well with experimental results. This success provided a sound
theoretical footing for the wave-particle duality of electrons and his contribution led in part to the
development of quantum mechanics.

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 Physics Module 8 – From the Universe to the Atom | 21

Suggested teaching strategies

Delivering this module in a timely manner is an important consideration as it includes five inquiry
questions and a significant amount of detail in each. Bringing forward related content from module
8 into the other modules may assist in achieving this goal. For example:

 The operation of particle accelerators could be introduced in Module 6, inquiry question 1,

Charged Particles, Conductors and Electric and Magnetic Fields.

 The qualitative investigation of the spectra of stars could be incorporated into Module 7
inquiry question 1, What is Light?

Alternatively, technologies and methods from Module 8 can be used as examples when teaching
the relevant concepts earlier in the course. For example:

 Experiments examining cathode rays, Thomson’s’ charge-to-mass experiment and Millikan’s

oil drop experiment can be modelled in Module 6 as examples for analysing the net forces
acting on charged particles in electric or magnetic fields.

 So too could examples relating to the acceleration and manipulation of charged particles
include examples of the operation of particle accelerators.

Origin of the elements

Investigating the evidence that led to the discovery of the expansion of the Universe is a great
opportunity for students to engage in modelling and to interpret and evaluate data. Balloons or
dressmaker’s elastic can be used to model the evidence used by Hubble in this discovery. A
sample investigation is included in the Appendix.

Investigating the processes leading to the transformation of radiation into matter can be used to
reinforce the quantum nature of particles. That is, matter can only be created in discrete ‘lumps’ or
quanta with the smallest of these being an electron. Students can be guided in calculating the
photon energies required to produce a range of fundamental particles. This pair production process
is the reverse of the particle-antiparticle annihilations studied in Module 7.

Simulations including Neon lights and other discharge lamps from PhET allow students to observe
and investigate the relationship between electron energy levels in atoms and the production of

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 Physics Module 8 – From the Universe to the Atom | 22

absorption and emission spectra. This simulation can be revisited when investigating the Bohr
model.

Essentially, both the proton-proton chain and the CNO cycle can be presented as different
mechanisms for undergoing the same net reaction:

1 4 +¿+2 γ +2 ν ¿
4 1H ⟶ 2He +2 e

Balancing nuclear equations could be introduced at this stage as students will apply them later in
this module to describe nuclear decay and other particle processes. Emphasis should be placed on
the conservation rules governing the reactions including conservation of mass number and charge.
In the reaction above, the 2 neutrinos (ν), produced with the positrons in the reaction are required
to conserve the lepton number.

Developing models of the atom

The content related to the historical development of models explaining the structure of matter is
spread across three topics within this module, specifically;

 the Structure of the atom topic includes the discovery of the electron and development of the
nuclear model of the atom

 the Quantum mechanical nature of the atom topic highlights the transition from a classical
model of the atom to a quantum model, and

 Deep inside the atom investigates are current and most fundamental description of the
subatomic constituents of atoms and their interactions.

Asking students to ‘begin at the beginning’ with atomic models may risk further embedding
problematic conceptions of matter and the repeated learning and discarding of outdated models
may exhaust students willingness to invest in understanding of each new atomic model before they
reach our current and most fundamental models of matter.

Consider instead beginning with our best models to ensure that students develop a consistent and
accurate conception of matter that they can then apply when describing and explaining the
evidence supporting our current, and previous, atomic models.

See article “Introducing 12 year-olds to elementary particles” for more detail on this approach to
introducing students to the standard model. It outlines many of the alternative conceptions that

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 Physics Module 8 – From the Universe to the Atom | 23

students may have regarding the nature of matter and provides a range of strategies to address
these.

Covering the historical development of atomic models is a broad and challenging topic. The
associated inquiry question should be used to provide insight into how it could be presented to
students.

IQ8-2: How is it known that atoms are made up of protons, neutrons

and electrons?

Early experiments examining cathode rays can be reproduced in the classroom using Crooke’s
tubes, magnets and a high voltage power source or spark-gap generator. The similarities between
these tubes the modified tube used by Thomson in his investigations should be highlighted for
students.

Millikan’s evidence can be modelled using domino’s, M&M’s, or other small objects with consistent
mass. Making the testing ‘blind’ by disguising the number of objects measured will ensure that
students must rely on their observations. Question 15 in NESA’s Physics 2017 additional sample
HSC questions outlines a suitable investigation and includes supporting data.

IQ8-3: How is it known that classical physics cannot explain the

properties of the atom?

This indicates that the topic could be presented as a story of the transition of atomic models from
those that are wholly classical (Rutherford) to classical-quantum hybrid (Bohr) and to fully quantum
(De Broglie and Schrödinger).

For example:

 Rutherford’s nuclear model was limited by its inability to explain the stability of electron
orbits. Classical electromagnetism predicted that accelerating charged particles should emit
radiation, thus loosing energy and collapsing into the nucleus.

 Bohr’s model introduced 'stationary states', in which electrons can remain without losing
energy through the emission of radiation but does not attempt to explain them.

 The discrete emission spectrum of hydrogen provides evidence for the quantum nature of the
atom and is successfully explained by Bohr's model

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 Physics Module 8 – From the Universe to the Atom | 24

 In assessing the limitations of the Rutherford and Bohr atomic models, examples outlined in
the previous Physics syllabus (in the Quanta to Quarks option topic) are suitable. For
example, its inability to completely explain the spectra of larger atoms, the relative intensity
of spectral lines, etc.

 A key feature of the Rutherford-Bohr model is its reliance on a classical representation of an

electron as a particle orbiting the nucleus. That is, it is a hybrid model that introduces an
element of quantisation (of angular momentum) to a classical model of the atom.

 This leads on nicely to de Broglie's matter waves. They can account for these stationary
states (as standing waves) without the need to conceptualise electrons as classical particles,
that is, it creates a truly quantum model of the atom.

 Schrödinger then discards these physical representations all together leading to the quantum
mechanical model of the atom.

The long list of models, experiments, people and dates introduced across these topics can create
confusion for students. Linking the names to experiments and to discoveries or the development of
new models can be supported by the construction of timelines or matching activities.

Question 27 from the 12 Physics problem set could be used to assess student understanding of
these topics. It includes a marking rubric and sample answer.

Quantum mechanical nature of the atom

Investigations and simulations relating to the Bohr model of the atom can be found in the
Suggested investigations section. Students can compare theoretical predictions of the Balmer
series emission lines made using the Rydberg equation to observations of the hydrogen spectrum
or using simulated data.

The challenge of quantum reality is a lesson compilation produced by the Perimeter Institute.
Watching the video presentation and completing Activity 1 would provide a suitable introduction to
the wave-particle duality. Activity 4: Investigating the nature of the electron includes a hands-on
investigation that demonstrates the formation of interference patterns as light passes through two
slits. It is accompanied by a video and other activities to support student understanding of the
wave-particle duality as it applies to electrons and de Broglie’s matter waves.

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 Physics Module 8 – From the Universe to the Atom | 25

Properties of the nucleus

An example investigation of the half-life model of radioactive decay is outlined in the Suggested
investigations section of this document.

Activity 5 in the Perimeter Institute resource, A deeper understanding of energy, includes hands on
investigations, sample questions and teacher background information to support the introduction of
mass-energy equivalence and binding energy concepts to Year 12 students. The resource also
highlights the role that using multiple representations of energy has in deepening student
understanding. Work-energy bar charts (WEBCs) and energy flow diagrams (EFDs) are simple
visual representations that enable students to engage with energy processes without the additional
cognitive load of applying equations.

Questions 24-26 in the Year 12 modules problem set can be used to assess student understanding
of concepts related to radioactive decay and half-life. The questions include marking guidelines
and sample answers.

Deep inside the atom

Cloud chambers provide clear evidence for the existence of other subatomic particles apart from
protons, neutrons and electrons. Cloud chamber operation and their use as early particle detectors
attached to large accelerator facilities also provide a suitable entry point for students into
understanding modern accelerators and detector systems. Both involve the use of electric and
magnetic fields to manipulate steams of charged particles and analyse the collision or
transformation products.

When investigating the Standard Model of matter, students should begin with the understanding
that all stable matter is composed of only four different fundamental particles; up quarks, down
quarks, electrons and neutrinos. These four particles make up almost all the matter in the
Universe.

The model can then be extended to include the second and third generations of particles along
with their antiparticles.

The activities outlined in the Suggested investigations section of this document support an inquiry-
based approach to introducing the Standard Model, engaging students in questioning and
predicting and giving priority to the evidence collected in the 1950’s and 1960’s that led to its
development and acceptance.

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 Physics Module 8 – From the Universe to the Atom | 26

Other useful activities can be found in the Resources section.

Suggested investigations

Origin of the elements

A sample investigation into the evidence leading to the discovery of the expanding Universe is
included in the Appendix.

Structure of the atom

Modelling Millikan’s oil drop experiment

An apparatus can be purchased for use in schools that can be used to conduct this investigation in
class, allowing students to appreciate the time taken to collect data along with issues of data
quality. Alternatively, a Millikan oil drop simulation could be used to model a similar method.

This simulation of Millikan’s experiment runs directly in a web browser and is extremely simple to
operate. Each student determines the charge on ten different oil drops and then shares their data
with the class to produce a larger data set. From this data, the quanta of charge can be
determined.

These methods are suitable for modelling Millikan’s evidence, however, for a more detailed outline
of Millikan’s methods and analysis watch Millikan's Oil Drop Experiment - A Level Physics(duration
11:43).

Modelling evidence for the nuclear model of the atom

In the investigation, Rolling with Rutherford – QuarkNet students will model the experimental
evidence supporting the nuclear model of the atom.

Questioning and predicting

Either before running the investigation or after completing a round of trials, students can be guided
to make predictions of the impact that changing factors would have on their observations. For
example, what if the size of the marble rolled were changed? How would the average number of

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 Physics Module 8 – From the Universe to the Atom | 27

hits be affected if the size or number of targets were to be modified? What might be the physical
significance of the changes they suggest?

Processing data and information

Processing of data from multiple trials and by multiple investigators can be used to simulate
contemporary practices in particle physics. The production of histograms to summarise and
present their data models an important method used in particle physics to interpret noisy data and
make determinations about events that are inherently probabilistic. The sharing of data between
groups to improve the overall ability to make these determinations provides a discussion point
about the need for open collaboration and sharing of data. These principles are reflected in
research practices of experimental collaborations such as ATLAS and CMS at the Large Hadron
Collider.

Quantum mechanical nature of the atom

Spectroscopy

A wide range of spectroscopes are available for use in the physics classroom, from simple prism or
diffraction based handheld spectroscopes to expensive digital spectrophotometers that can be
used to plot spectra for more detailed analysis. Even a DIY spectroscope using a CD and a
cardboard tube will allow students to observe and investigate a wide range of spectra.

Made for purpose discharge lamps that include bulbs for different elements are excellent in
demonstrating the unique spectral signatures of the elements and in investigating the Balmer
series. However, viewing fluorescent lighting in the classroom is enough to observe a typical
emission spectrum.

Use different elements, if available, and have students identify each using a spectral chart.
Alternatively, the PhET simulation, Neon lights & other discharge lamps, depicts the emission
process and resulting spectra of different elements effectively by showing the physical
representation of atoms side-by-side with the energy profile diagram and spectroscope readout.
Students can also use the simulation to predict and explore the relationship between electron
energy configurations and emission spectra by designing their own atoms.

Investigate the Balmer series in hydrogen

Students may have previously observed the emission spectra produced by various elements as
described above or in Module 7.

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 Physics Module 8 – From the Universe to the Atom | 28

Students now use the Rydberg equation

1
λ [
1 1
]
=R 2 − 2 to predict the wavelengths that should be
nf ni
observed in the visible spectrum for hydrogen. These can then be tested using hand
spectroscopes, digital spectroscopes or using the simulation above.

Properties of the nucleus

Modelling half-life

As discussed in the conceptual difficulties section, models and analogies are useful in supporting
student understanding of concepts in this model but care should be taken to make clear which
features of the analogy or model correspond to the target concept and which do not.

In the article Teaching radioactive decay and radiometric dating: An analog activity based on fluid
dynamics, the author outlines a teaching that goes beyond the flipping of M&Ms to include
substances with different half-lives along with decay series.

Rolling dice and tabulating the number of dice remaining after each roll could be used to explore
the relationship between the chance of decay occurring per unit time, the decay constant and half-
life. Groups of students could each be assigned different rules for which nuclei decay and the
results compared as a class afterwards.

Deep inside the atom

Bubble chamber detective – Perimeter Institute

These activities guide students in analysing images from bubble chambers in order to investigate
and discover a range of fundamental particles. Students apply electromagnetism to determine the
properties of a range of particles observed in the images and use conservation laws to infer the
properties of any unseen particles involved in the collisions. Resources include videos, worksheets
and diagnostic questions.

Students can apply their knowledge to investigate real bubble chamber images collected at CERN,
and can find more classroom activities on the CERN Science Gateway.

DIY Cloud Chamber | CERN

The instruction manual, developed by the educators at the CERN Science Gateway includes
detailed instructions with tips and troubleshooting advice to build your own cloud chamber at

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 Physics Module 8 – From the Universe to the Atom | 29

school. The chamber can be built on a very modest budget and using easily obtained items (dry ice
slices can usually be obtained from bottled gas suppliers).

Taming the particle zoo – Perimeter Institute or Shuffling the particle deck – QuarkNET

Either of these resources could be used to investigate how the explosion in the number of new
particles discovered in particle accelerators during the 1950’s and 1960’s led to the development of
the Standard Model. The activities are inquiry-based and support high levels of student
engagement along with the development of skills in working scientifically. Watching the video, The
Standard Model with Harry Cliff (duration 12:09) would be a suitable follow up activity to
consolidate student understanding.

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 Physics Module 8 – From the Universe to the Atom | 30

Resources

 Structure of the atom An infographic from Compound Interest showing the development of
atomic models from John Daltons ‘billiard ball’ to Erwin Schrödinger’s quantum mechanical
model. Each model is presented with a simple diagram, description, strengths and
limitations.

 The particle adventure provides a clear and at times humorous introduction to the Standard
Model of matter and is at a good level for high school students. It also includes links to range
of student worksheets and activities.

 CERN Science Gateway - quark puzzle has an inquiry learning template which tasks
students with using the 3D printed quark puzzle pieces to develop a set of rules that can
predict the possible and impossible combinations of quarks.

 The physics aviary - a large collection of interactive simulations that help students to deepen
or visualise the concept studied. Some of the simulations/labs relevant to this module
include: Emission spectra, Half-life, Millikan oil drop and Thomson’s cathode ray tube.

 History Programs from American Institute of Physics - Students who are interested in the
history side of physics can use the History Programs from American Institute of Physics to
learn about the scientists behind the experiments. The History of Science Web Exhibits
contain a wealth of information that students might be interested in. Sample exhibits include:

— Discovery of the electron

— Lawrence and the cyclotron

— Papers of great American physicists

— Rutherford’s nuclear world

YouTube

 Veritasium YouTube channel by Derek Muller; teachers can subscribe to be kept up to date
with new materials. Derek Muller created many video clips to help breaking some alternative
conceptions in physics.

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 Physics Module 8 – From the Universe to the Atom | 31

— alternative conceptions about the universe (duration 9:46)

— Physics Nobel Prize 2011 – Brian Schmidt (duration 7:12)

— Where does the Sun get its energy? (duration 6:00)

— Make plasma with grapes in the microwave! (duration 5:30)

— Radiation vs radiation atoms (duration 3:00)

— What are atoms and isotopes? (duration 2:57)

— First image of a black hole (duration 5:28)

— How to understand the image of a black hole (duration 9:18)

 What’s the difference between a scientific law and theory? – Matt Anticole (duration 5:11).
TED-Ed video outlining the contrasting roles of theories and laws in science. This animation
can provide an engaging introduction to the development and acceptance of theories. It is
also useful in addressing the common alternative conception that scientific theories are “just
a theory” by encouraging learners to look beyond the name of the theory to the evidence and
acceptance by the scientific community before evaluating its merit.

PhET simulations

 Neon lights & other discharge lamps, depicts the emission process and resulting spectra of
different elements effectively by showing the physical representation of atoms side-by-side
with the energy profile diagram spectroscope readout. Students could use the simulation to
predict and explore the relationship between electron energy configurations and emission
spectra by designing their own atoms or by trying to reproduce a given spectrum.

 Rutherford scattering - students can change the energy level of alpha particles, the number
of protons and neutrons of the nucleus and observe the scattering of the alpha particles at
different scales.

 Models of the hydrogen atom - students can view different models of the hydrogen atom
(billiard ball, plum pudding, solar system, Bohr, de Broglie, Schrödinger) and investigate how
they interact with incident photons.

 Alpha decay and beta decay - simple simulations, students can visualise a single nucleus or
multiple nuclei undergo alpha or beta decay.

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 Physics Module 8 – From the Universe to the Atom | 32

 Radioactive dating game - this could be used as an extension activity or to provided further
depth or context to half-life concepts, students can visualise percentage decay graph

 Molecules and light - this could be used as an extension activity that applies the quantisation
of energy levels to understand how molecules interact (vibrate, rotate, and so on) with
microwave, infrared, visible or UV light. This is also closely related to the spectroscopy
included in Module 8 of the Chemistry course.

 Nuclear fission - students have the choice of firing neutrons at a single nucleus, or to
investigate the requirements for chain reactions.

The Perimeter Institute

The Perimeter Institute produce high-quality resources to support inquiry-based learning in high
school physics classrooms. The following resources contain activities relevant to Module 8.

 The challenge of quantum reality is a lesson compilation produced by the Perimeter Institute.
Watching the video presentation and completing activity 1 would provide a suitable
introduction to the wave-particle duality. Activity 4: Investigating the nature of the electron
includes a hands-on investigation that demonstrates the formation of interference patterns as
light passes through two slits. It is accompanied by a video and other activities to support
student understanding of the wave-particle duality as it applied to electrons. This activity
could be introduced during this module and later completed in Module 8 when studying De
Broglie’s matter waves.

 Beyond the atom: remodelling particle physics, includes atomic structure, Standard Model,
detectors in the LHC and Rutherford scattering.

 A deeper understanding of energy, includes mass-energy equivalence, binding energy and

the expanding Universe.

 Contemporary Physics, includes detector physics and models of the hydrogen atom.

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 Physics Module 8 – From the Universe to the Atom | 33

Appendix

Appendix 1 – modelling evidence for an expanding Universe

Models of an expanding Universe used in science classrooms often take the form of inflating
balloons or stretching elastic. The purpose of these models is to assist students in making sense of
the evidence presented by Hubble. In addition, investigating the evidence through modelling
provides opportunities to develop student capabilities in working scientifically, in processing and
analysing data and in constructing evidence-based arguments.

Hubble’s original paper “A relation between distance and radial velocity among extra-galactic
nebulae (1929)” and a later article “Hubble’s diagram and cosmic expansion (2004)” provide useful
background reading for teachers when planning for this topic. The latter article contains both a plot
of Hubble’s original data, along with a second plot showing the refinement of estimates for the
Hubble constant. The second plot could be used in class to highlight the contestable nature of
scientific knowledge and could be used to lead discussion towards recent observations suggesting
that the rate of expansion is accelerating.

The use of models

As analogies, there are many similarities and some differences (positive and negative mappings of
features) between the model and our Universe that should be made clear for students. For
example:

 elastic materials and Space are similar in that their expansion is uniform across space and in
all directions, however, the elastic and balloon models only represent space in one and two
dimensions respectively. The single dimension in the elastic can be a useful simplification as
Hubble’s red shift data is also limited in determining the motion of galaxies along a single
dimension.

 using pictures or other fixed markers to represent galaxies ensures that galaxies themselves
do not expand in the model. This is an important feature of the expanding Universe and
should be made clear to students to avoid the common misconception that our galaxy, and
all the stars, planets and people it contains expand. It is only the space between galaxies
that expands.

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 Physics Module 8 – From the Universe to the Atom | 34

 The method of measuring the recession velocity of distant galaxies is very different to that
used to collect Hubble’s data. Using kinematics to measure the velocity can aid
understanding as it is familiar to students and provides more tangible evidence compared to
the red shift data used by Hubble.

The model below involves the placement of markers to represent galaxies, followed by the step-by-
step expansion of the elastic material and measurement of distances between markers.

Diagram showing the setup of the model with G1, G2, and so on representing the galaxies

G1 G2 G3 G4 G5

Gap 1-2 Gap 3-4 Gap 4-5

Gap 2-3

Students are assigned a role as either an ‘end of the Universe’ or in measuring distance or ‘gap’
between two galaxies. The students at each end of the Universe each take a step back at each
point in time, with the other students making a measurement after each step.

Sample data and corresponding graphs has been included in the image below. The columns show
each of the gap measurements along with the cumulative distance between galaxy one
(representing the Milky Way) and each respective galaxy.

Sample data

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 Physics Module 8 – From the Universe to the Atom | 35

Sample graphs showing the changing distances between galaxies

The graph on the above left shows the relative increases in the gaps between galaxies. Students
should note the larger gaps increase at a greater rate. This supports the notion that it is the space
itself that is expanding and not the galaxies.

The graph on the above right is a distance-time graph and the gradient of each trendline
corresponds to the recession velocity of each galaxy. Student should note that the further a galaxy
is initially from Galaxy 1, there greater its gradient and therefore the greater its recession velocity.

Further analysis could include measuring the velocity from each gradient (manually using rise/run
or using Excel) and then plotting a scatterplot of initial distance versus recessional velocity to
recreate a similar plot to that presented by Hubble (included below).

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 Physics Module 8 – From the Universe to the Atom | 36

We can conclude from the above graph that recession velocity is directly proportional to a galaxies
initial distance from the observer. This is evident in the linear relationship between the two
variables. This result is a direct consequence of the uniform expansion of the elastic used and for
this reason it is a good analog for the expansion of Space proposed by Hubble.

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 Physics Module 8 – From the Universe to the Atom | 37

References

This resource contains NSW Curriculum and syllabus content. The NSW Curriculum is developed
by the NSW Education Standards Authority. This content is prepared by NESA for and on behalf of
the Crown in right of the State of New South Wales. The material is protected by Crown copyright.

Please refer to the NESA Copyright Disclaimer for more information

[Link]

NESA holds the only official and up-to-date versions of the NSW Curriculum and syllabus
documents. Please visit the NSW Education Standards Authority (NESA) website
[Link] and the NSW Curriculum website
[Link]

Physics Stage 6 Syllabus © NSW Education Standards Authority (NESA) for and on behalf of the
Crown in right of the State of New South Wales, 2017.

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© State of New South Wales (Department of Education), 2020

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Department of Education (third-party material).

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