INT 330
Data Communication
2024
Lecturer : Dr. Maysa Khalil Noby
[Link]@[Link]
1
Analog Transmission
2
➢Aspects of Digital-to-Analog Conversion
➢Amplitude Shift Keying
➢Frequency Shift Keying
➢Phase Shift Keying
➢Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
3
Digital-to-Analog Conversion
Digital-to-analog conversion is the process of changing one of
the characteristics of an analog signal based on the information in
digital data.
a sine wave is defined by three characteristics: amplitude, frequency,
and phase. When we vary anyone of these characteristics, we create
a different version of that wave.
Types of digital-to-analog conversion
Data Element Versus Signal Element
We defined a data element as the smallest piece of information to be exchanged, the
bit. We also defined a signal element as the smallest unit of a signal that is constant.
Although we continue to use the same terms in this chapter, we will see that the
nature of the signal element is a little bit different in analog transmission.
Data Rate Versus Signal Rate
We can define the data rate (bit rate) and the signal rate (baud rate) as we did for
digital transmission. The relationship between them is
S=Nx1/r baud
where N is the data rate (bps) and r is the number of data elements carried in one
signal element. The value of r in analog transmission is
r =log2 L,
where L is the type of signal element, not the level.
6
Note
Bit rate is the number of bits per second. Baud rate is the
number of signal elements per second.
In the analog transmission of digital data, the baud rate is
less than or equal to the bit rate.
Example 5.1
An analog signal carries 4 bits per signal element. If 1000
signal elements are sent per second, find the bit rate.
Solution
In this case, r = 4, S = 1000, and N is unknown. We can find the value of N from
Example 5.2
An analog signal has a bit rate of 8000 bps and a baud rate of 1000 baud. How
many data elements are carried by each signal element? How many signal
elements do we need?
Solution
In this example, S = 1000, N = 8000, and r and L are unknown. We find first the value
of r and then the value of L.
L here is the type of the signal element not the level
In analog transmission, the sending device produces a high-
frequency signal that acts as a base for the information signal.
This base signal is called the carrier signal or carrier
frequency.
The receiving device is tuned to the frequency of the carrier
signal that it expects from the sender.
Digital information then changes the carrier signal by
modifying one or more of its characteristics (amplitude,
frequency, or phase). This kind of modification is called
modulation (shift keying).
10
1- Binary amplitude shift keying
In amplitude shift keying, the amplitude of the carrier signal is varied to create signal
elements. Both frequency and phase remain constant while the amplitude changes.
Implementation of binary ASK
Although the carrier signal is only one simple sine wave, the process of
modulation produces a nonperiodic composite signal. This signal has a
continuous set of frequencies.
The bandwidth is proportional to the signal rate (baud rate). However, there
is normally another factor involved, called d, which depends on the
modulation and filtering process. The value of d is between 0 and 1.
This means that the bandwidth can be expressed as shown, where S is the
signal rate and the B is the bandwidth.
B =(1 +d) x S
The most important point here is the location of the bandwidth. The middle
of the bandwidth is where Ie the carrier frequency, is located.
This means if we have a bandpass channel available, we can choose our Ie
so that the modulated signal occupies that bandwidth. This is in fact the
most important advantage of digital to-analog conversion.
13
Example 5.3
We have an available bandwidth of 100 kHz which spans from 200 to 300 kHz.
What are the carrier frequency and the bit rate if we modulated our data by using
ASK with d = 1 and r = 1?
Solution
The middle of the bandwidth is located at 250 kHz. This means that our carrier
frequency can be at fc = 250 kHz. We can use the formula for bandwidth to find the bit
rate (with d = 1 and r = 1).
Example 5.4
In data communications, we normally use full-duplex links with
communication in both directions. We need to divide the bandwidth into two
with two carrier frequencies, as shown in Figure 5.5. The figure shows the
positions of two carrier frequencies and the bandwidths. The available
bandwidth for each direction is now 50 kHz, which leaves us with a data rate of
25 kbps in each direction.
Figure 5.5 Bandwidth of full-duplex ASK used in Example 5.4
In frequency shift keying, the frequency of the carrier signal is varied to
represent data.
The frequency of the modulated signal is constant for the duration of
one signal element, but changes for the next signal element if the data
element changes.
Both peak amplitude and phase remain constant for all signal elements.
Binary FSK (BFSK) (or BFSK) is to consider two carrier frequencies.
In Figure 5.6, we have selected two carrier frequencies, f1 and f2.
We use the first carrier if the data element is 0; we use the second if the
data element is 1. However, note that this is an unrealistic example used
only for demonstration purposes. Normally the carrier frequencies are
very high, and the difference between them is very small.
16
Binary Frequency Shift Keying
Figure 5.6 Binary frequency shift keying
The difference between the two frequencies is 2Df.
We can think of FSK as two ASK signals, each with its own carrier frequency. If the
difference between the two frequencies is 2DF, then the required bandwidth is
B=(1+d)xS+2DF
Example 5.5
We have an available bandwidth of 100 kHz which spans from 200 to 300 kHz.
What should be the carrier frequency and the bit rate if we modulated our data by
using FSK with d = 1 and r = 1?
Solution
This problem is similar to Example 5.3, but we are modulating by using FSK. The
midpoint of the band is at 250 kHz. We choose 2Δf to be 50 kHz; this means
In phase shift keying, the phase of the carrier is varied to represent two or more
different signal elements.
Both peak amplitude and frequency remain constant as the phase changes.
Today, PSK is more common than ASK or FSK. However, QAM, which
combines ASK and PSK, is the dominant method of digital to-analog
modulation.
Binary PSK (BPSK): The simplest PSK, in which we have only two signal
elements, one with a phase of 0°, and the other with a phase of 180°. Figure
5.9 gives a conceptual view of PSK.
Binary PSK is as simple as binary ASK with one big advantage-it is less
susceptible to noise. In ASK, the criterion for bit detection is the
amplitude of the signal; noise can change the amplitude easier than it can
change the phase. In other words, PSK is less susceptible to noise than
ASK. PSK is superior to FSK because we do not need two carrier signals.
19
Implementation The implementation of BPSK is as simple as
that for ASK. The reason is that the signal element with phase
180° can be seen as the complement of the signal element with
phase 0°.
This gives us a clue on how to implement BPSK, the 1 bit
(positive voltage) is represented by a phase starting at 0°; the 0
bit (negative voltage) is represented by a phase starting at 180°.
20
Figure 5.9 Binary phase shift keying
Figure 5.10 Implementation of BPSK
Note
Quadrature amplitude modulation is a combination of ASK
and PSK.
➢ PSK is limited by the ability of the equipment to distinguish small
differences in phase.
➢ This factor limits its potential bit rate. So far, we have been
altering only one of the three characteristics of a sine wave at a
time.
➢ The idea of using two carriers, one in-phase and the other
quadrature, with different amplitude levels for each carrier is the
concept behind quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM).
Figure 5.14 Constellation diagrams for some QAMs
Analog-to-analog conversion
Analog-to-analog conversion is the representation of analog information by an analog
signal. One may ask why we need to modulate an analog signal; it is already analog.
Modulation is needed if the medium is bandpass in nature or if only a bandpass
channel is available to us.
Types of analog-to-analog modulation
An analog signal carries 8 bits per signal element. If 4000 signal
elements are sent per second, find the bit rate.
An analog signal has a bit rate of 4000 bps and a baud rate of 2000
baud. How many data elements are carried by each signal element?
How many signal elements do we need?.
We have an available bandwidth of 200 kHz which spans from 200 to
400 kHz. What are the carrier frequency and the bit rate if we
modulated our data by using ASK with d = 1 and r = 1?
We have an available bandwidth of 200 kHz which spans from 200 to
400 kHz. What should be the carrier frequency and the bit rate if we
modulated our data by using FSK with d = 1 and r = 1?
26
27
28