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Chapter Emotion

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Chapter Emotion

B

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pirthamraj02
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© All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Oe fy Chapt E —— eon Definition Emotions are feelings that 9enerally p, a cognitive elements and that influence oe an agree that Joy, Sorrow, anger, anxiety, love and hate era fammonen is rn to not so easy to identify their common Properties, 'S; but it is The word “emotion” Comes from, Latin ‘ ‘Oots " “ to “excite”. The motivated person Usually moves physieind, t© "move out” or Ves physical or away from some aversive situation, 2 nema ie The emotional Person, Is “moved internally” by Psychologically significant Situation, This Moving experience of motion involves both physiological reactions and “stirred up feelings”, Like Motivation, emotions can initiate, direct or maintain behaviour leading towards pleasant stimuli or away from danger or Unpleasantness, Emotions are a mixture of Physiological arousal, expressive behaviour and Conscious experience, Emotions are responses to stimuli, from the challenge of a final exam to the excitement of 4 job interview, Emotions Motivate, trigger and direct behaviour in these and other situations, Emotions are highly influenced by learning and Cognitive process, William James and his followers Suggested that an emotion has following five components. i Subjective experience Internal bodilly responses Cognitive appraisal Facial expression Raasian the perceived source of the emotion. logical reactions that logical and physiol joes orgenaes parce jes, These reactions include our si ee nee hysiological Rbiadne een ie 8 patterns of behaviour with phy: arousal, ii ili, vy. v; of emotion has Sharacteristics of Emotions The subjective experience hort Several characteristics, fh tends to have a clear beginning and s! Emotion is transitory, which te duration, 267 be 268 ii. iii. vi. vii. An Introduction to Psychology Emotional experience has a definite pleasant or unpleasant aspect (either positive or negative). Emotional experience is elicited by cognitive appraisal of a situation, Same event can create different emotions as it depends on individual's own perception. Emotional experience alters thought processes; it usually directs the attention towards something and away from others. Like motivation, emotional experience elicits an action tendency to behave in certain way. Emotional experiences are passions that happen to us, we have some control over them. Usually it is according to our interpretation of situation, the way we interpret, the way we feel. Subjective aspect is related to our self. The objective aspect of emotion consists of both learned and innate expressive displays and internal bodilly responses. Functions Through emotion people communicate their internal states and intentions to others, but emotion also functions to direct and energize individual's thoughts and behaviour. Emotions trigger and guide cognitions also. Emotions organize, motivate and sustain behaviour and social relations, Aspects of Emotion While studying the aspects of emotions, it becomes clear that cognitive, conative and affective all three aspects constitute. The feelings : include general as good- Dimensions of Emotion bad and __ positive negative affective state. The cognitive processes include individual's interpretations, memories and expectations. The overt behavioural —_ reactions are expressive and instrumental. Psychologists focus on one or another of these aspects of human emotions, Love g # 8 $ 5 2 Basic Emotions Robert Plutchik explained that there are ‘eight basic A inborn emotions, which an are made up of four Sn Pairs, i.e, joy and Sadness, fear and Remorse anger, surprise and anticipation, a id that all Sceptance and dj He sai at all other i i Li ‘Motion: i f thes: Sar Sond acceptance, abs Motions, For exannied to be Variation, of Jo i rimary emoti le, love ig lations, response. Recent studies have shown that} i 'SSOciateg ith minbination are involved in emotions, nate ang 1 aptive Sgust, 4, bot facto, rs In short, emoti physiological arousal, feelings cognigmPlex Pattern 2965 Incug which are shown by an individual after perocesses behavioural " personally significant in some eiving th i ituatio , Way or n neural, hormonal, visceral ang Muscular chem PMY Solyical a EMOTION As discussed earlier behavioural and cognitive, We AL CHANGES Emotional changes can b i will explain them one by one, Physiological, Physiological Changes in Emotion These changes include neural, hormonal (glandular), muscular. The systems involved in changes are following ~ Autonomic Nervous System » Glandular System especial » Limbic System visceral and ly Adrenal gland Most of the Physiological changes that take place during emotional arousal result from activation of the sympathetic division of the autonomic system, as it prepares the body for emergency action. In normal life, when we experience an intense emotion, such as fear or anger, we become aware of many bodilly changes which include rapid heart beat and breathing, dryness of the throat and mouth, increased muscle tension, perspiration, trembling of the extremities and a sinking feeling in the stomach, Role of Autonomic Nervous System in Emotion i f the The autonomic nervous system is respaneibie for most ol ‘actions. Physiological changes that accompany emotional re tem that carries eee ae fects all rel thie “pare Of the per ee nec The ANG i i I rgans of rand 'nformation between tha oral ae vessels, the dasstve sre in oh, Corer eae has ongoing Fe acai it. ‘MPU from ANS modulates this activity by inerea foning to meet ir functioning The autonomic nervous system ee ne body for changes by the repa Needs of the whole organism and prep "odulating the activity of the organs. 270 An Introduction to Psychology ions; Autonomic Nervous system has two divisions; 1 item a. Sympathetic basa ne gysterr thetic Ne ; b. Parasympa' system It usually prepares the organism f, a ‘one part of the sympathetic system is stimulate sympathetic Ne lated “in sympathy” with it (Gullhom and Loofbourroy, vigorous activity. | other parts are stimu! oe The sympathetic system is responsible for the following changes; 1. Blood pressure and heart rate increase. 2. Respiration becomes more rapid. 3. The pupils dilate. 4. Perspiration increases while secretion of saliva and mucous decreases, 5, Blood sugar level increases to provide more energy. 6. In case of wound the blood clots more quickly. ¥ Blood is diverted from the stomach and intestines to the brain and skeletal muscles. 8. The hair on the skin becomes erect, causing “goose bumps”. These reactions are called “fight or flight” syndrome, because they prepare the body to combat or to run from a threatening situation. Parasympathetic Nervous System As the emotion subsides, the Parasympathetic system which is actually energy conserving system, takes over and returns the organism to its normal state. Either branch of the autonomic nervous system can be activated during an emotion. For example, during anger, sympathetic nervous system increases the heart rate and the parasympathetic nervous system causes tears to flow in grief. In both the parasympathetic and sympathetic systems, there is relay — called a ganglion between the central nervous system and target In a parasympathetic system, the n P A eurotransmitter at the target organ oan eae but in sympathetic system the neurotransmitter at the target by fibers a ea a noradrenaline. Very often the same organ innervated example, the norereaclin each of which may produce opposite effects. For it down, ‘alin speeds up the heart, where as acetylcholine slows Polygraph polygraph ae en rousal 's an inevitable part of an emotion, that’s whY Measures several Shenteglen esponses wee polaraph simultaneovst erousal. The measure Agee responses known to be the part of autonomic Pressure, respi frequently are cha blood change (2 "cSPiration and the Inges in heart-rate, Stange in the electrical cenyoavanie skin response (GSR), which Is 2 "2? luctivity to the skin that occurs with emotional Emotion 271 Role of Adrenal Gland in Emotion It is also part of sympathetic nervous system. There are two adrenal glands, one on each side of the body just above the kidney. Each adrenal gland has two parts; adrenal cortex and adrenal medulla, both of which participate in emotional responses. The outer adrenal cortex is part of endocrine system and the inner adrenal medulla is part of the sympathetic nervous system. The adrenal medulla acts as a ganglion of the sympathetic system; it links the brain and various sympathetic target organs, It releases stress hormones i.e. adrenaline and noradrenalin into the blood stream. It activates all target organs of the sympathetic system. The influence of hormones on emotion has been shown in several kinds of studies. Hormone levels in the blood and urine rise during emotional states, where as change in emotional responding occurs when hormones are administered and in diseases, affecting the endocrine glands. Steroid hormones, as epinephrine and nor-epinephrine, act on many different kinds of body tissues, including nerve cells. Limbic System Parts of the limbic system are involved in display of emotional reactions. It consists of amygdala, hippocampus and septum. Amygdala is involved in emotional awareness and expressions through its many connections with higher and lower regions of the brain. Amygdala also produces reaction of rage and aggression when stimulated, Septum (another part of Limbic system) has the opposite effect. It reduces the intensity of emotional reactions when stimulated. The impact of amygdala and septum on emotional reactions is quite immediate and direct in fon-humans. In humans it is more subtle, reflecting the influence of other brain centers. THEORIES OF EMOTION Emotions are built from the inter-play of physiological arousal, xpressive behaviour and conscious experiences. There is controversy over this interplay, Question arises how these three aspects fit together, which comes first and cause others to occur? Let’s discuss different theories to have @ clear idea, James Lange Theory of Emotion William James idea was proposed by Danish physiologist Carl Lange and is, therefore, called the James Lange theory of emotion. This theory tells that our experience of emotion is the awareness of our physiological response to emotion arousing stimuli. 272 An Introduction to Psychology Common sense tells most of us cry because we are sad, lash 9, because we are angry and tremble because we are afraid, cx William Jatt Says, “This is not the case rather we feel sorry because we cry, angry becauss we strike and afraid because we tremble”, - If we can sharply avoid a car accident, then we c: heart and feel shaky with fright. Our feeling of fear an notice our racing response. follows our body's, James and Lange took the view that the instinctive response of ¢ at a loss leads us to feel Sorrow, that striking out at some one who frust Us results in our anger, that trembling at a menacing threat afraid, tying rates CAUSES US to fee] They proposed that we experience emotions as a result of Physiological changes that Produce specific sensation. In turn, there these sensations are interpreted by the brain as particular kind of emotional experiences, The essence of the argument is that emotions in the body, a person whose bi cannot feel emotions. are feelings of changes ody is cut off from the brain by anesthesia JAMES LANGE THEORIES Perceived Stimulus Physiological Arousal Experienced Emotion Supporters of James Lan component and believed that di created emotions, ge theory emphasized the physiological iscrete patterns of Physiological arousal Crit m James Lange theory was criticized on a large scale. > Cannon thought that body's responses were not distinct enough to evoke the different emotions. Does a racing heart signal fear, anger or love? Similar bodilly reactions accompany different emotions. If emotions depend on signals from the body, how the brain can separate one emotion from another when many of the signals are the same. Changes in heart rate, perspiration and body temperature seemed to occur too slowly to trigger sudden emotion. ~ As long as the evidence suggested that the arousal of one emotion Is much the same as another, So the James Lange assumption that we experience our emotion through differing body states seemed impossible. ~ James believed that we can control emotions by going “through the outward motions” of whatever emotion one wants to experience. He Emotion 273 advised to feel cheerful, sit up cheerfully, act as if cheerfulness were already there, . This theory poses another difficulty. Phy Ma invariably produce emotional expeiiice eee nin al who Is jogging has an increased heart beat and resplealoi rater os well as many of the other physiological changes associated “ath certain emotions. But the jogger does not interpret such changes as emotions. Internal bodilly changes by themselves may not be sufficient to produce emotion. Some reactions are found to occur in vel different situations but do not lead to same emotions. 7 Our internal organs produce relatively limited sensations. It is difficult look around cheerfully and ~ i to imagine how the range of emotions could be the result of unique visceral changes. ~ Many emotions are actually corrected with relatively similar sorts of visceral changes and it contradicts James Lange theory. ~» Artificially inducing the bodilly changes associated with an emotion does not produce the experience of a true emotion. For example, epinephrine drug produces many symptoms as in emotional change. » Cannon and others noted that animals continued to respond emotionally even after their viscera were separated surgically from the central nervous system. ~ Many emotions cannot be distinguished physiologically; therefore a person cannot experience different emotions simply by “reading” visceral reactions that are not well differentiated. Facial Feedback and Emotions Paul Ekman (1984), Carroll Izard (1971), and Silvan Tomkins (1981) hypothesized that feedback from facial muscles and facial skin; contribute to our feeling specific emotional states, such as anger, happiness, fear or, sadness. This idea was closely studied in laboratory, subjects were asked to make different poses. James Laired and his colleagues reported that subjects who held a “smile” pose, later reported being in better mood than those who held a “frown” pose. When compared with control subjects, people who held a “smile” pose While watching cartoons reported that the cartoons were funnier and pleasant Scenes produced more positive feelings (Laired, 1974, Zuckerman et. oh 1981), In a similar study, Robert Tourneau and Phoebe Ellsworth (1979) found that facial expressions had no effect on mood. ; 5 ie Ward Winton (1988) pointed oul aeeioes facial feedback causes US to ' sadness or anger? does facial feedback there 2° help us interpret thes one are two questions here. Perience a specific emotion, such as happiness, Secondly, rather than causing an emotion, ¢ ‘ontribute to a general mood? 274 AnIntroduction to Psychology Winton concluded that a number of studies provide evidence that facia, feedback can influence one’s general mood. He added, “There is very little evidence that facial feedback actually causes a specific emotion”. Cannon Bard Theory of Emotion . Cannon and later another American physiologist, Philip Bard, concluded that body arousal and the emotional experience occur simultaneously. The emotion arousing is routed simultaneously to the brain cortex, causing the subjective awareness of emotion and to the sympathetic nervous system causing the body’s arousal. Cannon Bard theory implies that our heart begins pounding as we experience fear, but one does not cause the other. Perceived Stimulus ) — Cannon and Bard viewed that we experience emotions normally because they believed emotions occur separately from the body's arousal. L_. (Experienced Emotion This theory holds that nerves carry data about stimuli to the cortex. Higher brain levels analyze the nature of the stimulus. If the signals indicate a threat, cortex then signals the thalamus and thalamus then signals the organs of the body, producing the physiological changes. Cannon considers the thalamus as emotional control center. When thalamus fires off an electrical message to higher brain centers and this message is interpreted as an emotional experience. Due t innon’s stress on thaiamus, his theory is aiso known as thalamic th if Cannon Bard theory seems to have been accurate in its rejection of James Lange theory, that physiological arousal alone accounts for emotions. It is now understood that the hypothalamus and the limbic system Criticism | play a major role in emotion and not the thalamus. Proposed that the thalamus was a bridge between body and higher brain The Schachter Singer Theory James put the emphasis on the body as the source of emotion. Cannon levels, This modern cognitive theory focuses on the role of cognitive Emotion 275 esses, perception, reasoning and memory in leading people to identity and experience emotion. Stanley Schachter and Jeronel Singer (1962) were the first who focused on the role of cognition and emphasized that we identify the emotion we are experiencing by observing our environment and comparing ourselves with others. Cognitive theory of emotions holds that after we are physically aroused by a situation, we identify the emotion according to our thoughts and environmental cues. According to Stanley Schachter, the experience of emotion is the joint effect of physiological arousal and cognitive appraisal, as both parts are necessary for an emotion to occur. Two Factor Theory The arousal is assumed to be general, undifferentiated and comes first in the emotional sequence, The cognition serves to determine how this ambiguous inner state will be labeled. This is also known as two factor theory of emotion (Mandler, 1984, Schachter and Singer, 1962). Organic and visceral factors interact with mental factors to produce an emotion. So when there is sympathetic arousal without a known or specified Source, a person will search the environment for cognitions to label the trousal and name the emotion. Schachter agreed with James that the first step in emotion is the Perception of a situation, followed by bodilly responses. Schachter argued that the brain may Interpret a particular pattern of feedback in many ways and give it many labels. He said that labelling an undifferentiated pattern of Physiological arousal at cognitive level actually constitutes the core of emotion, Attribution The labelling of arousal depends on an attribution, which is the Process of identifying the cause of some event. People may attribute their Physiological arousal to different emotions depending on the svalable 'nformation, especially about the situation. For example, if Someone 2 Watching the final moments of a crucial football match, then he may a ute 'S Fapid breathing, racing heart and perspiration to excitement, but eters Physiological changes may be attributed to anxiety if individual is walting for 2n important exam to begin. So the emotion depends how wi noe tional ntributes to our emoti ae oa to rol down a steep incline, we Appraisal Our appraisal r Is part of roller coaster, the experience, If we are In a car that sta ®xperlence fear or terror, but If we know the ca te aia’ + emotion will be differen pad ve appraisals are often sufficient to t that cognith be determined termine the qaity of experience ally of

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