MODULE 3

PRINCIPLES OF PLANT GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

STRUCTURE OF A PLANT CELL( leave half a page for diagram)

Describe the functions of parts of the plant cell

PART FUNCTION
Cell wall-a rigid ,outmost layer made of -protects inner parts of the cell
cellulose that surrounds the cell membrane -allow movement of water and dissolved
substances into the cell
-maintains the shape of the cell
Cell membrane- a semi permeable layer that -controls movement of substances in and out of
surrounds the cytoplasm the cell
Cytoplasm-a jelly like substance that fills the -provides medium for chemical reaction
space between the cell membrane and the -supports and suspends the organelles within
nucleus the cell
Nucleus-located near the centre of the cell and -controls and regulates cell activities such as
contain the cells genetic material(DNA) cell division, growth, metabolism and
reproduction
Chloroplasts-green disc shaped organelles -contain chlorophyll responsible for
found in cytoplasm photosynthesis
-absorb light energy
Mitochondria-are doubled membrane Produce energy through cellular respiration,
organelles found in the cytoplasm providing energy for the cells activities.
Vacuole-a large ,central organelle that is -storage of water, nutrients and waste products
surrounded by membrane (tonoplast) -keeps the plant cell rigid/firm

PLANT CELL DIVISION

What is cell division?
Is a process by which parent cell divides into two or more daughter cell
What are the importance of cell division?
 For growth of plants
 For repairing worn out tissues
 For multiplication of cells
 For formation of sex cells
 For reduction of number of chromosomes

TYPES OF CELL DIVISION

MITOSIS-this is a type of cell division where a cell splits into two daughter cells that are genetically
identical to the parent [Link] is essential for growth, repair and maintenance of multicellular
organisms.
Example; a cattle body cell has 60 chromosomes and during cell division the resulting daughter cell
will have 60 chromosomes as well.

MEOSIS- it is a process of cell division where a cell splits and form 4 genetically different daughter
cell.
Meiosis is specific for sexual [Link] results in the formation of gametes (sperm and egg
cells) with half the number of chromosomes as the parent plant.
Meiosis consist of two rounds of division leading to four daughter cells each with unique genetic
makeup.
Example: each bull sperm cell contains 23 chromosomes and each cow ovum has 23 chromosomes.
when the sperm and ovum fuses during fertilisation, the diploid number of 46(23+ 23) chromosomes
is produced .this number will be present in all cells of the offspring.

Difference between mitosis and meiosis

MITOSIS MEIOSIS
Occurs in body cell Occurs in sex cells
Cell divides for growth, repair of worn out -cells divides for formation of sex cells and
tissues and multiplication of cells reduction of number chromosomes
Cell divides once Cell divides two times
2 daughter cells are produced 4 daughter cells are produced
Daughter cells have diploid 2n number of Daughter cells have haploid /n number of
chromosomes chromosomes
Parent daughter cells are genetically identical Parent and daughter cell are genetically
different

Describe the structure of a monocotyledon and di-cotyledon plant seed

Structure and functions of a monocotyledon and di-cotyledon plant seed.
State functions of the parts of a plant seed
PART FUNCTION
Seed coat Protects inner parts from infections and injuries
cotyledon Stores food for developing embryo
embryo Consists of radicle and plumule
radicle Forms root system of the plant
plumule Forms the shoot system of the plant
endosperm Stores food for the developing embryo
micropyle -allows water into the seed during germination
-allows gaseous exchange in and out of seed
during germination

hilum -shows position of attachment of seed to the

ovary wall
Describe the structure and functions of a monocotyledon and di-cotyledon plant root

Internal structure of a root

Fig. 2.1 .2 a: dicot root Fig. 2.1 .2 b: monocot root

Functions of the parts

Part Description Function
Root hairs  Tiny outgrowths on epidermis  Provide large surface area for
 Numerous and thin walled absorption of water and nutrients
 Penetrate soil colloids
Epidermis  Outermost layer consisting of  Produces root hairs.
thin-walled cells covering other  Protects inner tissues. From
root tissues drying, infection and injuries
 Absorbs water and mineral salts
Cortex  Large region between epidermis  Stores food and water
and vascular bundles  Strengthens root tissues
Endodermis  Innermost layer of cortex around  Controls amount of water
the vascular bundles entering vascular bundles.
 Stores starch
Pericycle  Row of cells inside endodermis  Gives rise to lateral roots
enclosing the vascular tissue
Xylem  Xylem slightly on the inside  Transport water and mineral
 In dicots xylem forms a star salts.
shaped pattern in the centre of  Provides support to the root
root tissue.

Phloem Transport food from leaf to root

cells
Pith  Occupies the centre of a root  Stores food and water
 Acts as supporting tissue
between other root tissues
Cambium  Secondary meristems in stems  Produces new xylem and
and roots phloem.
 Responsible for lateral growth/
increases diameter of root
Longitudinal section of a root
The longitudinal structure of a root shows various zones (regions) of a root.
Region of cell division /apical meristem
 A tissue at the tip of root composed of dividing
cells.
 It adds new cells to the region of elongation
and root cap,
 Ensures growth of the root

Region of elongation
 A set of cells that determine the growth of the
root.
 It lengthens and increases in size pushing the
root tip through the soil

Region of differentiation
 The area where cells develop into different
types of root tissues.
 It provides structural strength
 It stores food

Fig. 2.1.3: longitudinal section through

a root

Root cap (apical meristem),

 An envelope like structure at the terminal end of root.
 It protects the root tip as it pushes through the soil.
 It lubricates its passage through the soil.
 It perceives gravity and controls direction of growth

Internal structure of a stem

Fig. 2.1.4: Internal structure of stems of dicot and monocots

Functions of the parts of internal structure of stem
Part Description Functions
 Epidermis  Layer of cells covering other  Protects inner parts from drying,
stem parts pathogens and physical injury
 Cells are covered with cuticle.
 In young stems it has guard
cells and stomata
Cortex  Region between epidermis and  Stores food and water
vascular bundles  Strengthens tissues in young
plants
Endodermis  Inner layer of cortex  Storage tissues for starch
surrounding the vascular
bundle
Phloem  Has sieve tubes  Transports food from leaves to
other plant parts
Xylem  Has tracheary elements  Transports water and mineral salts
 Strengthens the stem
Cambium  Consists of meristem tissue  Produce xylem and phloem
 Present in dicot stems tissues
Pith  Occupies centre of dicot stem  Stores food and water
 May be hollow in some stems  Provide mechanical support to
stem

Difference between monocot stem and dicot stem

Dicot stem Monocot stem
Vascular bundles for a ring pattern Vascular bundles scattered
Cambium present Cambium present
Ground tissues divided into pith and cortex Ground tissues not divided into pith and
cortex

3.2.6 Describe the structure and functions of parts of a plant leaf

Internal structure of a leaf
 Fig 2.1.1: internal structure of a leaf

Functions of the parts

Part Description Functions

Cuticle  A thin Waxy, waterproof  Prevents loss of water from leaves
transparent layer on leaf
Epidermis  Found on upper and lower  It protects the internal parts of a leaf
sides of leaf. from injury.
 Consists of epidermal cells  It also secretes cuticle
that lack chloroplasts.
 Cells are relatively
transparent
Cuticle  Outermost layer which  Protects leaf against water loss,
covers epidermis mechanical injury, chemical attack,
pest/pathogen infection
Palisade  A layer of long cylindrical  Major site for photosynthesis
mesophyll cells that are closely packed
layer below the upper epidermis
 Contain numerous
chloroplasts
Spongy  A layer of irregular shaped  Allow gaseous exchange.
mesophyll cells with air spaces  Photosynthesise
layer between them
 Contain less chloroplasts
Air spaces  Pores between spongy  Allow diffusion of vapour and gases.
cells
Xylem  Consists of tracheary  Transport water and mineral salts.
elements  Provides structural support
Phloem  Consists of sieve tubes  Transport food from manufacturing
sites to other parts of the plants
Guard cells  Bean shaped epidermal  Contract to close and expand to open
cells that contain the stomata
chloroplasts  Photosynthesis also occurs here

Difference between monocot and dicot leaf

Monocot Dicot
Parallel veins Veins form network patterns
Long narrow leaves Broad leaves with Different shapes(oval, heart
shape)
Stomata scattered randomly on the leaf surface Stomata primarily on the lower surface of the
leaf

STRUCTURE OF A BEAN FLOWER ( LEAVE HALF APAGE FOR DIAGRAM)

 FLOWER PART FUNCTION
PEDICEL-this is the stalk at the end of the -supports and attaches the flower to the stem
receptacle
SEPALS-a green leaf like structure at base of -protects inner parts of flower during bud stage
the flower
CORROLLA-consists of five coloured petals of Attracts insect for pollination
different shapes and sizes
ANDROECIUM-(male part) consists of 10 Filament-supports the anther
stamens which are made of filament and Anther-produces pollen grains
anthers
GYNOECIUM –(female part): consists of an Stigma-receives pollen grain during pollination
ovary ,ovules, style and stigma -nourishes pollen grain to develop
pollen tube
Style-stalk connecting ovary to stigma
Ovary-contains ovules
Ovules-contain female gametes
Ovules develop into seed while ovary develop
into fruit/pod after fertilisation

STRUCTURE OF A MAIZE FLOWER

Maize are grouped in clusters called florescence

Tassel-is the male inflorescence located at the top of shoot
Cob –is the female inflorescence located down on the lower side of shoot

THE TASSEL(DIAGRAM)

Male flowers occurs in pairs called spikelets, each enclosed in small-leaf like structures called bracts.
each flower has 3 stamens that hangs out of the flower when developed. The anthers are held on
long flexible filaments

THE COB (DIAGRAM)

Female flowers consists of ovaries arranged spirally on a stalk. Each cob is surrounded by a number
of leaves wrapped around each other in layers called husks. Each ovary has 1 ovule, along thin style
bearing a feathery stigma at the top which hangs outside the cob. The long thin style and stigma are
called silk.
MODULE 4: AGSSL 4: EXPLORE PRINCIPLES OF PLANT PRODUCTION
Purpose: This module equips learners with knowledge and skills on basic principles of plant
production
LEARNING OUTCOMES FOR THE MODULE:
On completion of this module, learners are able to:
AGSSL 4.1 Demonstrate knowledge and skills in plant reproduction
AGSSL 4.2 Demonstrate knowledge and skills in plant growth
AGSSL 4.3 Demonstrate knowledge and skills in the production of a crop (NAME the crop:
Vegetable, Field or Herb)
AGSSL 4.4 Demonstrate knowledge and skills in controlling crop pests
AGSSL 4.5 Demonstrate knowledge and skills in controlling crop diseases
AGSSL 4.6 Demonstrate knowledge and skills in harvesting of crop

LEARNING OUTCOME AGSSL 4.1 Demonstrate knowledge and skills in plant reproduction

4.1.1 Discuss pollination in plants

Pollination in plants
Pollination
 This is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma.
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Mechanisms of pollination
Wind pollination
 Maize flowers are wind pollinated.
 Wind blows pollen grains from ripe anthers.
 The pollen grains are carried in air currents.
 Pollen grain land on the stigmas of the same plant, hence self-pollination or different
plant, hence cross pollination
 Maize is usually cross-pollinated.
 Self-pollination is prevented as stigmas often mature before the anthers (dichogamy)

Features of the maize flower that encourage wind pollination:

 Stigma hangs outside the flower.
 Anthers hangs outside the flower / bract.
 Anthers loosely attached to the filament.
 Feathery style / silk / stigma
 Many styles/stigma/silks
 Light pollen grains
 Long and flexible filament
 Large quantities of pollen grains produced.
 Long styles that hang outside flowers

Insect pollination
  Bean flower is insect
pollinated.
 Bees are attracted to the
flower by nectar, pollen, and
colour.
 When the bee lands on the
flower it is dusted with pollen
grains
 As the bee leaves the flower
pollen grains are brushed onto
the stigma of the same flower
resulting in self-pollination
 Upon visiting another flower
pollen grains are brushed off
onto stigma resulting in cross
pollination

Features of bean flowers that encourage insect pollination:

 Brightly coloured petals
 Presence of nectar in the nectary
 Stamens are partly enclosed and do not protrude.
 Stigma is not feathery and does not protrude.
 Anthers are firmly attached on comparatively rigid filaments.
 Large, rough, and sticky pollen grains, smaller in quantities

4.1.2 Discuss the process of fertilization in plants

Process of fertilization
Fertilization process in a bean plant
 Pollination occurs, pollen placed on stigma.
 The pollen grain absorbs sugar and water from stigma and swells.
 Pollen tube develops under the influence of tube nucleus.
 Generative nucleus divides into two male gametes.
 In ovule, female nucleus divides to form 8 nuclei within embryo sac.
 Pollen tube grows down the style until it reaches the ovary.
 Pollen tube enters the ovule via micropyle.
 The pollen tube nucleus breaks down releasing male gametes into the embryo sac.
 This results in double fertilization. One male gamete fuse with the female gamete to form
a zygote. The other fuses with the endospermic nucleus to form endosperm.
 The zygote will develop into an embryo. The fertilized ovule becomes a seed while
fertilized ovary becomes a fruit.
4.1.3 Describe plant propagation
Plant propagation

Methods of Propagation
- Sexual (seed) and Asexual (grafting, budding, layering, use of cuttings, use of suckers)
Asexual reproduction

It is the production of new plants using vegetative parts. The following vegetative parts used
to propagate plants asexually:
 Stem  Bulb  Runner  Stolon
 tuber  Rhizomes  Suckers  Corm

Methods of vegetative propagation

Grafting
 This means uniting two stems of two different plants of the same species to form an
individual plant.

How it is done
 Identify the scion and
rootstock from
compatible plant
species with desirable
characteristics.
 Make V shaped
(corresponding) cuts on
both the scion and
rootstock, using a
grafting knife.
  Join the scion with a
rootstock

 Join stems/plants of the same diameter or age.

 Tie the union with a grafting tape or raffia tape.
 Cover the union with a protective wax.
 Keep the grafts in a warm place.
 Plant the grafted seedling as an individual plant.
 Examples of plant that can be grafted successfully are lemon and orange.

Layering
 This involves inducing a stem to develop roots, cutting the stem from their parent plants,
and using them to produce a new individual plant.

Procedure:
 Wound part of the
plant stem to expose
the stem cambium.
 Bend the stem so
that the wounded
part touches the
ground.
 Smear rooting
powder or hormone
on the wounded part
 Peg the wounded
part to the ground
 Bury the wounded
part
in a growth medium.
 Keep the area moist.
 Support the bent branch with a stake.
 Cut the rooted stem from the parent plant.
 Plant the rooted stem as an individual plant

LEARNING OUTCOME AGSSL 4.2 Demonstrate knowledge and skills in plant growth
4.2.1 Discuss the process of seed germination
Process of germination
4.2.2 Carry out experiments on conditions required for seed germination
Experiments on conditions required for germination

4.2.3 Discuss conditions necessary for plant growth.

Conditions for plant growth
Water
Light
suitable temperature
nutrients
air
absence of harmful factors

4.2.4 Carry out experiments on conditions necessary for plant growth

Experiments on conditions necessary for plant growth
4.2.5 Discuss process of photosynthesis
Process of photosynthesis
 Plant food is manufactured through photosynthesis.
 Photosynthesis is a process by which plants combine carbon-dioxide with water to
manufacture carbohydrates and oxygen as a by-product in the presence of sunlight
absorbed by chlorophyll.
 Chlorophyll absorbs light energy.
 Water is carried into leaf mesophyll via xylem vessels.
 Carbon dioxide diffuses into leaf mesophyll through stomata.
 Light energy splits water molecule into hydrogen and oxygen atoms
 Carbon dioxide combines with hydrogen atoms to form carbohydrates.
 Oxygen released as a by-product.

sunlight
water +carbondioxide → carbohydrates +oxygen
chlorophyll

4.2.6 Carry out an experiment on the process of photosynthesis

Experiment on the process of photosynthesis

4.2.7. Discuss process of Respiration

Process of Respiration
4.2.8 Discuss the process of translocation
Process of Translocation
 Movement of the sugars produced in photosynthesis from the leaves to other plant parts.
 Sugars move into phloem mass flow / active transport.
 Phloem conducts sugars from leaves to other parts of the plant.

4.2.9 Discuss food storage in plants

Food storage in plants
 Plants store food in form of starch
 Plants store food in different organs as seen in the table.

Storage Examples of plants

organ
Stem tuber Irish potato
Root tuber sweet potato
 Bulb Onion, leek, garlic, and shallot
Stem Sugar cane, sweet reed,
Leaf Kale, cabbage, Swiss-chard, lettuce,
Fruit Tomato, green pepper, pumpkin, watermelon, butter nuts and cucumber
Seed Sorghum, maize, millet, wheat, rice, peas, bush beans, and ground
Root Carrot, beetroot, radish, cassava, turnip, and parsnip

4.2.10 Discuss the process of Transpiration

Process of Transpiration
4.2.11 Carry out experiment on transpiration
Experiment on transpiration

LEARNING OUTCOME AGSSL 4.3 Demonstrate knowledge and skills in the production of a crop
(NAME the crop: Vegetable, Field or Herb plant)
4.3.1 Determine the climatic requirement of the crop
Climatic requirement of the crop– temperature and rainfall
4.3.2 Determine type and soil pH of the crop
Soil type and pH of the crop
4.3.3 Prepare appropriate seedbed for the crop
Seedbed for the crop
4.3.4 Determine the time of planting of the seed
Time of planting of the seed
4.3.5 Sow the seed using appropriate method
Sowing the seed– number of seeds, depth of planting, spacing
4.3.6. Apply the right amount of fertilisers at the right time using the appropriate methods
 Amount of fertiliser application
2.2 Main crops found locally.

In this topic, learners will acquire the necessary skills required to raise one vegetable and
one field crop.

Objectives
 Practically study one vegetable and one field crop in relation to the following:
a) climatic requirements,
b) soil type and soil pH requirement,
c) seedbed preparation,
d) sowing or planting time and method,
e) choice of suitable varieties
f) seed rate, spacing and plant population (as appropriate),
g) inorganic manures, organic manures and fertilisers and rates of application,
h) prevention and control of common pests and diseases,
i) recognition of crop maturity,
j) harvesting of yield and storage methods,
k) marketing,
l) uses of the crop and its by products,
m) relevant legislation,
n) record keeping, including a diary of events, production and financial records relating
to the selected crops,
Factors considered when choosing a variety to grow:
 The purpose for which the crop is grown.
 Adaptability to local climatic conditions
 Resistance to pests and diseases
 Consumer’s preference
 The time the variety takes to mature.

Types of records kept.

 Diary: the crop grower records all important events on daily basis. The diary provides
information needed to prepare other farm records.

 Financial records: They show cash received or spent by a business. Examples of

financial records include:
o Cash Book which records cash received and spent by the business daily.
o Ledger book (Accounts Receivable and Payable Book) that show how much money
the business is owed by debtors or owed to creditors at any given time.
o Sales Book
o The Profit and Loss Account, describes how money comes into and leaves a
business over a given period. It facilitates determination of profits or losses made.
o The balance sheet shows assets, liabilities, and net worth of a business.

 Production records: These show the type and quantity of inputs used and the output
produced in a business. Examples of production records in crop production include:
o Field operations record e.g., harvesting record, spraying record etc.
o Labour use record
o Machine use record, e.g., tractor use record.

Climatic requirements
 It prefers cool weather with temperatures ranging from 10oC - 30oC; optimum monthly
temperatures of 15oC - 18oC, not exceeding 24oC.
 It is damaged by light frost.

Soil requirements
 It grows on a wide range of soils, preferably sandy loam soils, rich in organic matter.
 It prefers a slightly acid soil with a pH of 6.0 to 6.8.

Fertiliser requirements
 Base dress with kraal manure at the rate of 5 - 8 kg/m2 or chicken manure at 2 - 4 kg/m2
or 55 kg per ha N, 80 kg per ha P and 55 kg per ha K. should also be applied in addition
to the manure.
 Top dress with a nitrogen fertiliser at 42 kg per ha every 21 days to meet nitrogen needs
for spinach.

Planting
 It should be planted in March to April or August to September.
 Seed is directly sown but may also be transplanted.
 The depth of planting should be 1cm,
 Inter row spacing of 30 - 45cm.
 Thin seedlings to a spacing of 20 - 25cm between plants in a row.
 For nursery seedbed sow seeds at inter row spacing of 10cm.
 Transplant seedlings at a spacing of 30 – 45cm by 20 – 25cm.
 The seed rate is 14 kg per hectare.
Management practices