Nervous System Midterm Reviewer
A. General Functions of the Nervous System
. S
1 ensory input – gathers information.
2. Integration – processes and interprets sensory input.
3. Motor output – activates effector organs (muscles/glands) to respond.
B. CNS vs PNS
● CNS (Central Nervous System):
○ Components: Brain and spinal cord.
○ Function: Integration and control center.
● PNS (Peripheral Nervous System):
○ Components: Nerves (cranial and spinal).
○ Function: Communication between CNS and body.
C. Motor (Efferent) vs Sensory (Afferent) Components
M
● otor (Efferent): Carries signals from CNS to effectororgans (muscles/glands).
● Sensory (Afferent): Transmits sensory informationfrom receptors to CNS.
D. Nervous System as a Control System
.
1 ensory Receptors: Detect changes (stimuli) in environment.
S
2. Afferent Pathways: Carry signals to CNS.
3. Control Center (CNS): Processes information.
4. Efferent Pathways: Carry signals from CNS to effectors.
5. Effectors (Organs): Perform the response (muscles/glands).
E. Somatic Motor vs Autonomic Motor Divisions
S
● omatic Motor: Voluntary control of skeletal muscles.
● Autonomic Motor: Involuntary control of smooth muscle,cardiac muscle, and glands
(includes sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions).
F. Somatic Sensory vs Visceral Sensory Divisions
S
● omatic Sensory: Sensory input from skin, muscles,and joints.
● Visceral Sensory: Sensory input from internal organs.
G. Major Components of a Neuron
1. Cell body (Soma): Contains nucleus and organelles.
.
2 ucleus: Control center of the neuron.
N
3. Nucleolus: Produces ribosomes.
4. Chromatophilic Substance (Nissl Bodies): Rough ERfor protein synthesis.
5. Axon Hillock: Initiates action potentials.
6. Dendrites: Receive incoming signals.
7. Axon: Transmits outgoing electrical impulses.
H. Three Structural Types of Neurons
1. Unipolar (Pseudounipolar):
○ Structure: Single process divides into two branches.
○ Location: Sensory neurons in PNS.
○ Function: General sensory.
2. Bipolar:
○ Structure: One dendrite, one axon.
○ Location: Retina of the eye, olfactory mucosa.
○ Function: Special senses.
3. Multipolar:
○ Structure: Multiple dendrites, one axon.
○ Location: Most common in CNS.
○ Function: Motor neurons and interneurons.
I. Three Functional Types of Neurons
. S
1 ensory (Afferent) Neurons: Transmit sensory inputto CNS.
2. Interneurons (Association Neurons): Located withinCNS; process information.
3. Motor (Efferent) Neurons: Transmit motor output fromCNS to effectors.
J. Six Types of Neuroglial (Glial) Cells
.
1 strocytes: Support neurons and maintain blood-brainbarrier.
A
2. Microglial Cells: Phagocytic defense cells in theCNS.
3. Ependymal Cells: Line ventricles, produce cerebrospinalfluid (CSF).
4. Oligodendrocytes: Myelinate axons in the CNS.
5. Schwann Cells: Myelinate axons in the PNS.
6. Satellite Cells: Support neurons in the PNS.
K. Myelination in CNS vs PNS
C
● NS: Oligodendrocytes produce myelin.
● PNS: Schwann cells produce myelin.
● Function: Speeds up nerve impulse transmission.
L. Depolarization, Repolarization, Hyperpolarization, and Threshold
● D epolarization: Sodium channels open, Na+ enters, membrane potential becomes less
negative.
● Repolarization: Potassium channels open, K+ exits,membrane potential returns to
resting.
● Hyperpolarization: Membrane potential becomes morenegative than resting state.
● Threshold: Membrane potential required to initiatean action potential.
M. Role of Sodium-Potassium ATPase Pump
● M
aintains resting membrane potential by pumping 3 Na+ out and 2 K+ into the neuron,
counteracting leak channels.
N. Major Ion Channels in Neurons
. L
1 eak Channels: Always open; maintain resting potential.
2. Voltage-Gated Channels: Open in response to voltagechanges (e.g., Na+, K+
channels).
3. Mechanically Gated Channels: Open in response to physicalstimuli.
4. Ligand-Gated Channels: Open in response to neurotransmitters(chemically gated).
O. Resting Membrane Potential (RMP)
● R
MP is approximately -70mV, maintained by ion concentration differences (Na+ high
outside, K+ high inside) and leak channels.
P. Graded Potentials vs Action Potentials
G
● raded Potentials: Occur in dendrites; vary in strength.
● Action Potentials: All-or-nothing response; travelalong axon.
Q. Absolute and Relative Refractory Periods
A
● bsolute Refractory Period: No action potential possible.
● Relative Refractory Period: Action potential possiblebut requires a stronger stimulus.
R. Conduction (Propagation) of Action Potentials
● Involves opening of voltage-gated Na+ channels, followed by K+ channels, moving along
axon.
S. Myelinated vs Unmyelinated Axon Conduction
M
● yelinated Axons: Faster conduction due to saltatoryconduction.
● Unmyelinated Axons: Slower conduction; continuouspropagation.
T. Electrical Synapse vs Chemical Synapse
E
● lectrical Synapse: Direct ion flow through gap junctions.
● Chemical Synapse: Neurotransmitter release and receptorbinding.
U. Events of Synaptic Transmission
.
1 ction potential arrives at axon terminal.
A
2. Voltage-gated Ca2+ channels open.
3. Neurotransmitter released via exocytosis.
4. Neurotransmitter binds to receptors on postsynaptic cell.
5. Postsynaptic potential generated.
V. Mechanisms of Terminating Synaptic Transmission
. R
1 euptake: Neurotransmitter reabsorbed by presynapticcell.
2. Enzymatic Breakdown: Neurotransmitter degraded byenzymes.
3. Diffusion: Neurotransmitter diffuses away from synapticcleft.
W. Common Neurotransmitters
Excitatory: Glutamate, Acetylcholine.
●
● Inhibitory: GABA, Glycine.
X. How a Single Neurotransmitter Elicits Different Responses
● A
single neurotransmitter can bind to different receptor subtypes on different
postsynaptic cells, leading to varied effects.
○ Example: Acetylcholine (ACh) can stimulate muscle contraction in skeletal
muscle (nicotinic receptors) but inhibit heart rate in cardiac muscle (muscarinic
receptors).
Y. Gray Matter vs White Matter in the CNS
● Gray Matter:
○ Composition: Neuron cell bodies, dendrites, unmyelinated axons.
○ Location: Outer layer in the brain (cortex), inner layer in the spinal cord.
○ Function: Processing and integration of information.
● White Matter:
○ Composition: Myelinated axons.
○ Location: Inner layer in the brain, outer layer in the spinal cord.
○ Function: Transmission of signals between different parts of the CNS.
Z. Tract vs Nerve; Nucleus vs Ganglion
● Tract:
○ Structure: Bundle of axons in the CNS.
○ Location: CNS (e.g., corticospinal tract).
● Nerve:
○ Structure: Bundle of axons in the PNS.
○ Location: PNS (e.g., sciatic nerve).
● Nucleus:
○ Structure: Cluster of neuron cell bodies in the CNS.
○ Location: CNS (e.g., caudate nucleus).
● Ganglion:
○ Structure: Cluster of neuron cell bodies in the PNS.
○ Location: PNS (e.g., dorsal root ganglion).
AA. Layers of the Meninges
1. Dura Mater:
○ Outermost, tough layer.
○ Function: Protection and structural support.
2. Arachnoid Mater:
○ Middle layer, web-like structure.
○ Function: Contains CSF in subarachnoid space.
3. Pia Mater:
○ Innermost layer, thin and delicate.
○ Function: Adheres to brain/spinal cord surface.
AB. Epidural, Subdural, and Subarachnoid Spaces
1. Epidural Space:
○ Location: Between dura mater and vertebral column.
○ Function: Contains fat and blood vessels.
2. Subdural Space:
○ Location: Between dura mater and arachnoid mater.
○ Function: Potential space; typically minimal.
3. Subarachnoid Space:
○ Location: Between arachnoid mater and pia mater.
○ Function: Contains cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).
AC. Dural Venous Sinuses
S
● tructure: Large veins formed by splitting of dura mater.
● Location: Within the dura mater.
● Function: Drain blood from the brain into the internal jugular veins.
AD. Cranial Dural Septa
S
● tructure: Extensions of the dura mater.
● Function: Stabilize the brain within the skull.
● Examples: Falx cerebri, tentorium cerebelli.
AE. Protection of the CNS by Bones and Vertebrae
C
● ranial Bones: Surround and protect the brain.
● Vertebral Column: Protects the spinal cord by encasing it in vertebrae.
AF. Production, Flow, and Reabsorption of CSF
. P
1 roduction: Choroid plexuses in the ventricles produce CSF.
2. Flow: Lateral ventricles → third ventricle → cerebral aqueduct → fourth ventricle →
subarachnoid space.
3. Reabsorption: CSF is absorbed into dural venous sinuses via arachnoid granulations.
AG. General Functions of Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)
. C
1 ushioning: Protects the brain and spinal cord from impact.
2. Buoyancy: Reduces the brain's effective weight.
3. Nutrient Transport: Delivers nutrients and removes waste.
AH. Dura Mater Surrounding Brain vs Spinal Cord
B
● rain: Dura mater has two layers (periosteal and meningeal).
● Spinal Cord: Dura mater is a single layer; there is an epidural space containing fat.
AI. Four Major Parts of the Adult Brain
. C
1 erebrum: Higher cognitive functions (thinking, memory, emotion).
2. Diencephalon: Includes the thalamus (sensory relay) and hypothalamus (homeostasis).
3. Brainstem: Basic life functions (breathing, heart rate); includes the midbrain, pons, and
medulla.
4. Cerebellum: Coordination of movement and balance.
AJ. Cerebral Hemispheres and Five Lobes
.
1 rontal Lobe: Voluntary movement, problem-solving,planning.
F
2. Parietal Lobe: Sensory processing, spatial awareness.
3. Temporal Lobe: Hearing, memory, language comprehension.
4. Occipital Lobe: Visual processing.
5. Insula: Taste, visceral sensation, emotional response.
AK. Broca's Area vs Wernicke's Area
● Broca’s Area:
○ Location: Frontal lobe.
○ Function: Motor speech production.
● Wernicke’s Area:
○ Location: Temporal lobe.
○ Function: Language comprehension.
AL. Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) vs Somatic Nervous System (SNS)
1. Site of Origination:
○ ANS: Brainstem, spinal cord.
○ SNS: Spinal cord.
2. Number of Neurons:
○ ANS: Two-neuron chain (preganglionic and postganglionic neurons).
○ SNS: Single neuron.
3. Effectors:
○ ANS: Cardiac/smooth muscles, glands.
○ SNS: Skeletal muscles.
4. Neurotransmitters:
○ ANS: Acetylcholine (ACh) and norepinephrine (NE).
○ SNS: Acetylcholine (ACh).
AM. Divisions of the ANS
1. Sympathetic Division:
○ Function: "Fight or flight" responses.
○ Neurotransmitters: Acetylcholine (ACh) in preganglionic, norepinephrine (NE) in
postganglionic.
○ Location: Thoracolumbar origin.
○ Ganglia: Sympathetic chain, collateral ganglia.
2. Parasympathetic Division:
○ Function: "Rest and digest" responses.
○ Neurotransmitters: Acetylcholine (ACh) in both pre- and postganglionic neurons.
○ Location: Craniosacral origin.
○ Ganglia: Terminal and intramural ganglia.
AN. Major Components of the Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Divisions
Sympathetic Division:
● S
ympathetic Trunk (Chain): A series of ganglia locatedon either side of the spinal
column.
○ F unction: Allows for sympathetic nerve fibers to travel to different levels of the
body.
● White and Gray Rami Communicantes:
○ White rami: Carry preganglionic sympathetic fibers from the spinal nerves to the
sympathetic trunk.
○ Gray rami: Carry postganglionic fibers back to the spinal nerves.
● Splanchnic Nerves:
○ Carry fibers to and from the viscera.
○ Involved in innervating internal organs.
● Pelvic Splanchnic Nerves:
○ Arise from the sacral region and are part of the parasympathetic system.
○ Function: Control functions of the lower digestive tract and pelvic organs.
● Major Ganglia:
○ Sympathetic Trunk (Chain) Ganglia: Parallel to thespinal cord, involved in
innervation of thoracic organs.
○ Prevertebral (Collateral) Ganglia: Located anteriorto the vertebral column,
innervate abdominal and pelvic organs.
Parasympathetic Division:
● Cranial Nerves Involved:
○ CN III (Oculomotor): Controls eye muscles and pupil constriction.
○ CN VII (Facial): Stimulates salivary and lacrimal glands.
○ CN IX (Glossopharyngeal): Controls parotid salivary gland.
○ CN X (Vagus): Major parasympathetic nerve that innervates the heart, lungs, and
digestive organs.
● Ganglia:
○ Terminal Ganglia: Located near the organ being innervated.
○ Intramural Ganglia: Located within the wall of thetarget organ.
AO. Visceral Reflex Arcs
● Components:
1. Sensory Receptors: Detect stimuli in internal organs(e.g., baroreceptors,
chemoreceptors).
2. Afferent Pathways: Sensory neurons transmit signalsto the CNS.
3. Integrating Center: Located in the CNS (spinal cordor brainstem) where
processing occurs.
4. Efferent Pathways: Motor neurons carry signals tothe effector organs.
5. Effectors: Organs like the heart, glands, or smoothmuscles respond (e.g.,
adjusting blood pressure or digestion).
● Function: Maintain homeostasis by controlling visceralorgan functions.
AP. Role of the Nervous System in Homeostasis
● T he nervous system maintains homeostasis by rapidly responding to internal and
external changes.
○ Example: Adjusting heart rate, blood pressure, and body temperature in
response to changes in the environment.
● Interaction with Other Body Systems:
○ Works closely with the endocrine system (e.g., hypothalamus regulating pituitary
hormones).
○ Controls muscle movements (skeletal and smooth) to regulate blood flow,
digestion, and respiration.
AQ. Effects of Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Innervation on Various Effectors
1. Heart:
○ Sympathetic: Increases heart rate and force of contraction.
○ Parasympathetic: Decreases heart rate.
2. Airways:
○ Sympathetic: Dilates bronchi (allows more air in).
○ Parasympathetic: Constricts bronchi.
3. Gastrointestinal Tract:
○ Sympathetic: Inhibits digestive activity.
○ Parasympathetic: Stimulates digestion.
4. Iris of the Eye:
○ Sympathetic: Dilates pupils.
○ Parasympathetic: Constricts pupils.
5. Blood Vessels:
○ Sympathetic: Constriction of blood vessels (increases blood pressure); dilation of
vessels to muscles.
○ Parasympathetic: Little to no effect.
6. Sweat Glands:
○ Sympathetic: Stimulates sweat production (thermoregulation).
○ Parasympathetic: No effect.
7. Arrector Pili Muscles:
○ Sympathetic: Stimulates hair to stand up (goosebumps).
○ Parasympathetic: No effect.
AR. Autonomic Tone
● D efinition: A continuous level of autonomic activitythat regulates the function of
effectors even in the absence of external stimuli.
○ Example: The parasympathetic system maintains resting heart rate.
● Relevance in Homeostasis: Autonomic tone allows forimmediate adjustments to
changes in body conditions (e.g., increasing heart rate during exercise or lowering it
during rest).
AS. Stress Response and Long-term Health Impact
● S ympathetic Activation: The "fight or flight" response increases heart rate, blood
pressure, and blood glucose levels.
● Chronic Stress: Long-term activation of the sympatheticsystem (due to chronic stress)
can lead to health problems such as hypertension, cardiovascular disease, and
weakened immune function.
● Example: Modern stressors (e.g., work pressure, financialstress) can keep the
sympathetic nervous system activated for prolonged periods, leading to adverse effects
like fatigue, anxiety, and metabolic issues.