2

CHAPTER TWO Viral diseases

Gilda D. Lio-Po

Outbreaks of viral disease in cultured fish and shrimps have been more fre-
quently reported in the past two decades. Its significance cannot be ignored as
their occurrences resulted in heavy mortalities. This chapter aims to provide
basic information on viral disease problems involving economically important
fishes, such as catfish (Clarias spp. and Ictalurus spp.) snakeheads
(Ophicephalus striatus ), carp (Cyprinus spp.), tilapia, milkfish (Chanos
chanos), grouper (Epinephelus spp.), rabbitfish ( Siganus spp.), sea bass (Lates
calcarifer), mullet (Mugil cephalus) and penaeid shrimps.

CHARACTERISTICS OF VIRUS

Viruses are ultramicroscopic organisms with size ranges of 10 to 300 nano- microns
(nm). An electron microscope is required to visualize viruses. Because of their size,
viruses are able to pass through filters of 0.5 micron pore size.

Envelope

Capsomere
(capsid) Nucleo-
capsid
Nucleic
acid

Figure 2-1. Structure of an enveloped

virus

The basic structure of a virion consists of a capsid which encloses a nucleic

acid genome (Fig. 2-1). The capsid is made up of identical protein subunits
called capsomeres while the genome is either a ribonucleic acid (RNA) or a
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). The combined viral components is called the
nucleocapsid. This may have an envelop which is lipid in nature. Viruses that
do not have an envelop are considered naked viruses.
 Viruses have cubical/ polyhedral, helical or complex morphology/ symmetry.
These microbes are obligately parasitic, multiplying only in its live host. In
animal cells, the virus initially attaches on specific cell surface components
called receptors. Subsequently, the whole virion penetrates the cell then makes
use of the metabolic machinery and pathways of the living cell to make copies
of its nucleic acid and synthesize protein subunits. Thereafter, these basic
structural components are assembled to package the new viral particles. The
new virions are usually released from the cell by lysis.
Cells infected by some virus develop inclusion / occlusion bodies within the in-
fected cell as the replication cycle progresses. These are formed as a result of an
accumulation of virions or viral components, although some inclusion bodies may
not contain virions. These could be singular, multiple, intracytoplasmic or
intranuclear and can be detected by histopathology using a compound micro- scope.
Aquatic viruses are transmitted from fish / shrimp to other fish / shrimp, from water
to fish / shrimp or from reservoir to fish / shrimp by horizontal transmis- sion.
Disease transmission can also result from brooder to eggs/ fry via vertical
transmission. Known reservoirs of viral pathogens are farmed fish / crustacean,
imported fish / crustacean, wild fish / crustacean, other aquatic animals/ plants and
survivors of viral epizooties.
Diagnosis of viral infections can be made by a combination of various methods
such as signs of disease, detection of inclusion / occlusion bodies, electron mi-
croscopy (EM) or infection enhancement bioassay. Tissue culture techniques
using established fish cell lines i.e. BB (Brown Bullhead), BF2 (Bluegill Fin),
CCO (Channel Catfish Ovary), CFS (Catfish Spleen), CHSE (Chinook Salmon
Embryo), EPC (Epithelioma Papulosum Cyprini), FHM (Fathead Minnow),
GCK-84 (Grass Carp Kidney), GCG (Grass Carp Gonad) and GCF (Grass Carp
Fin), RTG-2 (Raibow Trout Gonad), SBK-2 (Sea Bass Kidney), SHS (Snakehead
Spleen), SSN-1 (Striped Snakehead Fry). To date, however, no continuous cell
line from shrimp has been established.
Filtrates prepared from homogenized tissues of virus infected fish when inocu-
lated onto monolayers of susceptible cells will result in lysis / destruction of the
cells known as cytopathic effect (CPE) . Serial dilution of the filtrate will pro-
vide information on the estimated titer of the virus expressed as tissue culture
infection dose (TCID). Alternatively, the focal site of CPE induced by each
virion will cause the development of a clear zone called plaque. In such plaque
assay, the number of plaques formed indicates the estimated viral particles in a
given sample.
Other techniques based on the principle of serology are also applied in the diagnosis
of viral infections. The more commonly used tests include neutraliza- tion index (NI)
determination, Western Blot, Enzyme-linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA),
Fluorescent Antibody Technique (FAT) and Indirect Fluorescent Antibody
Technique (IFAT). Recent molecular biology techniques such as Poly- merase Chain
Reaction (PCR), Reverse Transciptase-Polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), DNA
Probe have been developed and is currently widely applied for diagnosis of viral
infections in shrimp.

10 Health Management in Aquaculture

 In establishing the pathogenicity of a virus, provisions embodied in the River’s
Postulates are followed:
• The virus must be present in the host cells, blood, or body fluids showing
specific lesions at the time of the disease.
• Filtrates of infectious material, blood or tissue, shown not to contain bacte-
ria or other visible cultivable pathogen in inanimate media, must produce
the disease or specific antibody in appropriate animals.
• Similar filtrates from animals or plants must transmit the disease.
It is only when these provisions are complied with that a virus can be consid- ered
pathogenic to fish or shrimp.

MAJOR VIRAL INFECTIONS IN FISH

Epizootic Ulcerative CAUSATIVE AGENT:

Syndrome (EUS) This is a complex disease attributed to a combination of rhabdovirus
(65x175 nm) (Fig. 2-2), the bacterium Aeromonas hydrophila , and the
fungus Aphanomyces invadans .
SPECIES AFFECTED:
A wide range of cultured and wild fish species are affected namely:
snakehead ( Ophicephalus striatus ), catfish (Clarias sp.), climbing perch (
Anabas spp.), spiny eel ( Mastamcembelus armatus ), gourami
(Trichogaster spp.), barbs (Puntius spp.), serpent fish ( Channa
micropeltes), sand goby (Oxyeleotris marmoratus), barbs, three-spot
gourami ( T. trichopterus), striped croaking gourami ( Trichopsis vittatus ),
siamese fighting fish (Betta splendens), wrestling half-beak (Dermogenus
pustillus), swamp eels (Fluta alba). EUS has occurred in Australia,
Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, Myanmar, Kampuchea, Lao PDR,
Philippines, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, Singapore, Vietnam
and Pakistan.
Figure 2-2. Electron micrograph of rhabdovirus GROSS SIGNS:
isolated from EUS-affected snakehead
(Ophicephalus striatus) EUS lesions are characterized by severe, ulcerative, dermal necrosis
with extensive erosion / sloughing of the underlying musculature (Fig.
2-3). The necrotic muscular tissue emits a foul odor. Fish manifest
frank ulcers consisting of eroded dermal layer, exposing the underly-
ing musculature, which may be hemorrhagic. Fish with less severe
lesions exhibit scale loss with erosion of the skin surface with or with-
out hemorrhagic signs.
EFFECT ON HOST:
The histopathological profile of the disease consists of a chronic, ne-
crotic, and mycotic granulomatous inflammatory response.
Figure 2-3. Snakehead (O. striatus) with EUS lesion Outbreaks are observed annually between November to February

Viral diseases 11
 when the water temperature is at its lowest. EUS is transmitted by cohabitation
with diseased fish or exposure to contaminated waters. The virus replicates at 15
~ 25°C in 2-3 days to 107 TCID50 / ml in SHS cells and in SSN-1 cells. The virus
experimentally induced dermal lesions and mass mortalities of snakehead fry
and fingerlings.
DIAGNOSIS:
Signs of disease and isolation / identification of the associated virus, Aeromonas
hydrophila/Aphanomyces sp., histopathology and electron microscopy.

Channel Catfish Virus CAUSATIVE AGENT:

Disease (CCVD) Herpesvirus ictaluri (90 to 100 nm)
SPECIES AFFECTED:
Channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus )
GROSS SIGNS:
Acute infection of cultured channel catfish fry and fingerlings less than 10 cm long,
juveniles and adults occurs following waterborne exposure to CCV. Clini- cal signs
are abdominal distension (Fig. 2-4), exophthalmia, pale or hemor- rhagic gills,
petecchial hemorrhage at the base of the fins and throughout the skin. In 20 to 50%
of the epizootics, affected fish swim in head-high or hanging position at the surface.
EFFECT ON HOST:
Severe mortality of sometimes nearly 100% occur among young-of-the-year
Ictalurus punctatus at water temperatures of 25°C or higher within 7 to 10
days. It causes moderate mortalities at 21 to 24°C and almost no mortalities
below 18°C. Secondary invasion of external lesions by Flavobacterium
columnares, Aeromonas hydrophila or aquatic phycomycetes may develop.
CCVD develops into a hemorrhagic viremia after initially replicating in the kid-
ney and then in the spleen. Thereafter, the virus is transported to the intestine,
liver, heart, and brain. Necrosis of the renal hematopoietic tissue and tubules;
edema, necrosis and congestion of the liver; intestinal edema; congestion and
hemorrhage in the spleen are characteristic histopathological findings. Skeletal
muscle hemorrhage among experimentally infected fish has been
observed.
Survivors of experimental CCVD averaged only two-thirds the
length and one-seventh the weight of control fish 6 months after a
standardized feeding regime. The portal of entry for CCV from wa-
ter is through the gills and the gut. The virus can be isolated from
the kidney of fish with active infections during an epizootic using
CCO or BB cells, which develop CPE 24 to 48 h post exposure. Opti-
mum replication was observed at 25 to 30°C. The virus is readily
transmitted from fish to fish during an epizootic. In natural and
experimental infections, exposed fry die within 3 days of exposure
Figure 2-4. Channel catfish (Ictalurus
punctatus) infected with channel catfish virus and within 7 to 10 days after the first mortality. The virus also
(CCV). Note the swollen abdomen persists in apparently healthy adult broodfish.

12 Health Management in Aquaculture

 DIAGNOSIS:
Electron microscopy (EM), serum neutralization tests, indirect fluorescent anti-
body technique, nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and by a channel cat- fish
virus probe.

Grass Carp Hemorrhagic CAUSATIVE AGENT:

Disease Aquareovirus (60 to 80 nm)
SPECIES AFFECTED:
Grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idellus), black carp (Mylopharyngodon piceus),
topmouth gudgeon (Pseudorasbora parva), silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys
molitrix), Chinese minnow (Hemiculter bleekeri) and rare minnow (Gobiocypris
rarus)
GROSS SIGNS:
Clinical signs include exophthalmia, hemorrhagic or pale gills and hemor- rhagic fin
bases or gill covers.
EFFECT ON HOST:
This disease was first observed in China more than 20 years ago. Outbreaks
occured in Southern China during the summer at temperatures of 24-30°C.
Acute infections cause significant mortalities of up to 80% among fingerlings
and sometimes among yearlings. Internally, hemorrhages occur in the muscu-
lature, oral cavity, intestinal tract, liver, spleen and kidneys. Naturally and ex-
perimentally infected fish manifest reduced erythrocytes, plasma protein, cal-
cium and urea nitrogen. Serum potassium elevated. Signs of disease and mor-
tality are observed within 1 to 2 weeks of exposure of fish in water at tempera-
tures of 25°C or higher. Experimental vaccination induced 80% level of immu-
nity by day 4 at temperatures above 20°C.
DIAGNOSIS:
The virus can be propagated in cell cultures of GCK-84, GCG and GCF yielding
titers as high as 108 to 109 TCID50 per ml. In vitro replication is considered opti-
mum between 28 and 30°C inducing CPE in 3 to 4 days post inoculation. Re-
verse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and electron micros-
copy are also used for detecting the virus.

Spinning Tilapia (ST) CAUSATIVE AGENT:

Syndrome Iridovirus (110-140 nm)
SPECIES AFFECTED:
Oreochromis mossambicus, O. aureus, O. niloticus, and Sarotherodon galilaeus
GROSS SIGNS:
Affected tilapia fry and fingerlings swim in a spiral pattern, sink to the bottom
then rise and hang at a 45 degrees angle just under the water surface, gasping
for air. They do not feed and are darker in color.

Viral diseases 13
 EFFECT ON HOST:
Tilapia manifesting the spinning syndrome die within 24 h of onset. Up to
100% mortality in affected population of Tilapia fry has been reported. Histo-
pathologically, the renal tubules are shrunken, hemorrhaging and infiltrated
with eosinophilic granular cells. In addition, focal myolysis develops in the
muscles.
DIAGNOSIS:
The disease is detected by signs of the disease, EM, isolation / identification of
the virus.

Viral Nervous Necrosis (VNN) CAUSATIVE AGENT:

Nodavirus (20-25 nm)
SPECIES AFFECTED:
Grouper (Epinephelus spp.), sea bass (Lates spp.) (Fig. 2-5), barfin flounder
(Verasper moseri) , European bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) , parrotfish
(Oplegnathus fasciatus) , striped jack (Pseudocaranx dentex), turbot
(Scophthalmus maximus) , Japanese flounder (Paralicthys olivaceus) , barfin
flounder (Verasper moseri) , red sea bream (Pagrus major), sea bream (Sparus
aurata) , shi drum (Umbrina cirrosa) , cod (Gadus macrocephalus) , Atlantic
halibut (Hippoglossus hippoglossus) , purplish amberjack (Seriola dumerili) ,
and tiger puff (Takifugu rubripes) in Thailand, Japan, Taiwan, Singapore, Ta-
hiti, Greece, Australia and Europe.
GROSS SIGNS:
Affected larvae and juveniles show lethargy, pale color, loss of appetite, thin- ness,
loss of equilibrium and corkscrew swimming. Some fish sink to the bot- tom then
float to the surface again.
EFFECT ON HOST:
This viral infection is also known as Paralytic Syndrome, Viral Encephalopathy
and Retinopathy, Spinning Grouper Disease, Piscine Neuropathy or Fish En-
cephalitis. The disease is more severe in less than 20 days old larvae. Diseased
fish had pale livers, empty digestive tracts, the intestines filled with greenish to
brownish fluid and the spleens are red-spotted. The virus replicates in the eye,
the brain, and the distal spinal cord of affected fish causing vacuolating en-
cephalopathy and retinopathy. It also multiplies in the gonad, liver, kidney,
stomach and intestine. This disease caused 50-95% mortalities among fish lar-
vae and juveniles at 26-30oC in Taiwan and Thailand. It can be transmitted
from diseased to healthy fish within 4 days of contact. The virus is more viru-
lent at 28oC than at 16oC. Fish broodstocks can be virus reservoirs.
DIAGNOSIS:
Histopathology showing vacuolations in the nerve cells of the eye retina and
the brain of affected fish is diagnostic for this disease. The virus can be isolated
Figure 2-5. Seabass larva: eye with vacu- in SSN-1 and barramundi cell lines on which it induces CPE. The virus can be
olation (Hematoxylin and Eosin, 40x) identified by EM, PCR, RT-PCR, ELISA, FAT and by in-situ hybridization assay.

14 Health Management in Aquaculture

 Lymphocystis Disease CAUSATIVE AGENT:
Iridovirus (130-330 nm)
SPECIES AFFECTED:
Lates sp. and Siganus sp.
GROSS SIGNS:
Infected fish have clusters of pear-like nodules up to 5 mm in diameter that develop
on the skin, gills or fins resulting from an enlargement of tissue cells.
EFFECT ON HOST:
The disease is rarely fatal in older fish. It can be transmitted by cohabitation
and exposure to contaminated water.
DIAGNOSIS:
Signs of the disease, histopathology and EM

Grouper Iridovirus of CAUSATIVE AGENT:

Taiwan Disease (TGIV) Iridovirus (220-240 nm)
SPECIES AFFECTED:
Grouper, Epinephelus sp.
GROSS SIGNS:
Diseased fish swim in circles and are anemic. Fish lose appetite then become
underweight and lethargic. The spleen of affected fish has abnormal hypertro- phied
cells containing numerous icosahedral virions.
EFFECT ON HOST:
This virus has antigenic similarities with the red seabream iridovirus isolated
in Japan, the epizootic, haematopoietic necrosis virus and the iridovirus iso-
lated from sheatfish and the grouper iridovirus isolated in Thailand.
The disease affects farmed groupers, 5-8 cm in total length at 25-28°C. Acute disease
causes up to 60% mortality. Experimentally infected fish reach a cumu- lative
mortality of 100% in 11 days without other clinical signs.
DIAGNOSIS:
Signs of the disease; EM

Sleepy Grouper Disease (SGD) CAUSATIVE AGENT:

Iridovirus (130-160 nm)
SPECIES AFFECTED:
Epinephelus tauvina
GROSS SIGNS:
Affected fish exhibited extreme lethargy and low appetite. Affected fish swim alone
or hung at the water surface or remain at the bottom.

Viral diseases 15
 EFFECT ON HOST:
It was first reported among farmed groupers, 100-200 g and 2-4 kg in size, in 10
of 33 farms in Singapore and Malaysia. Acute disease causes up to 50% mortal-
ity mostly occurring during the night or in the early hours of the morning.
Gradual mortalities follow after fish become sluggish over 3-5 days, after which
affected fish lie at the net or tank bottom exhibiting weak fin movements. Some
terminally ill fish display gill pallor, rapid opercular movements and frantic
dashing to the water surface to gulp air. Acute mass mortalities may occur 12-
24 h after handling or excessive feeding. Internal pathology consists of enlarge-
ment of the spleen or occasional enlargement of the anterior kidney and heart
inflammation. The virus was detected in the spleen, heart and kidney of in-
fected fish. Experimentally exposed fish develop signs of SGD and die in 3-4
days. The virus was introduced into a farm with some imported fish and subse-
quently spread to neighboring farms.

MAJOR VIRAL INFECTIONS IN PENAEID SHRIMPS

White Spot Syndrome CAUSATIVE AGENT:

Virus (WSSV) Disease Baculovirus (100-140 x 270-420 nm)
SPECIES AFFECTED:
All stages of shrimps like Penaeus monodon, P. chinensis, P. indicus, P. penicil-
latus, P. japonicus, Metapenaeus ensis, P. aztecus, P. duoraru m, P. merguiensis,
P. semisulcatus, P. stylirostris, P. vannamei, P. curvirostris, P. setiferus, and also
other crustaceans such as Scylla serrata, Charybdis feriatus, Helice tridens,
Calappa lophos, Portunus pelagicus, P. sanguinolentus, Acetes sp., Palaemon
sp., Exopalaemon orientalis, Panulirus sp. Macrobrachiu m rosenbergii,
Procambarus clarkii, Orconectes punctimanus, Artemia
GROSS SIGNS:
Typical signs of disease is the presence of distinct white cuticular spots
(Fig. 2-6) (0.5-3 mm in diameter) most apparent at the exoskeleton
and epidermis of diseased shrimp about 2 days after onset. The white
spots start at the carapace and 5th and 6th abdominal segments that
later affect the entire body shell. The moribund shrimp display red
discoloration and have loose cuticle. Affected shrimps manifest sur-
face swimming and gathering at pond dikes with broken antennae.
EFFECTS ON HOST:
This disease has been reported with the following names: White spot
baculovirus (WSBV), White spot virus (WSV), Systemic ectodermal
and mesodermal baculo-like virus (SEMBV), Chinese baculovirus
(CBV), Hypodermal and hematopoietic necrosis baculo-like virus
Figure 2-6. Penaeus monodon affected with the (HHNBV), Rod-shaped virus of Penaeus japonicus (RV-PJ), Penaeid acute
white spot syndrome virus ( WSSV) viremia (PAV), Penaeid rod-shaped Dovavirus (PRDV). Reduc-

16 Health Management in Aquaculture

 tion in food consumption and empty gut develops followed by a
rapid onset of the disease and high mortalities of up to 100% in 3
to 10 days. This disease affects a wide host range of crustaceans
and targets various tissues (pleopods, gills, hemolymph, stom-
ach, abdominal muscle, gonads, midgut, heart, periopods, lym-
phoid organ, integument, nervous tissue and the hepatopan-
creas) resulting in massive systemic pathology. Shrimps, 4-15 g,
are particularly susceptible but the disease may occur from mysis
to broodstock. Pre-moulting shrimps are usually affected.
Penaeus indicus suffers earlier and greater losses compared to P.
monodon. Crabs, krill and other shrimps are viral reservoirs. Pan-
demic epizootics have occurred in extensive, semi-intensive and
Figure 2-7. Histological section of the
stomach of a juvenile P. monodon with
intensive culture systems regardless of water quality and salini-
WSSV intranuclear inclusion bodies ties.
(Hematoxylin and Eosin stain, 400x) DIAGNOSIS:
Clinical signs are diagnostic for this disease. However, recent reports indicate
that some bacteria may induce similar signs, hence confirmation with other
diagnostic tests should be done. Demonstration of the presence of hypertro-
phied nuclei in stained squashes, smears of epithelial and connective tissues of
the gills or stomach of affected shrimp. Histological sections show widespread
cellular degeneration and severe nuclear hypertrophy, chromatin margination
and eosinophilic intranuclear inclusions in the subcuticular epithelium of the
shell, gill, stomach, connective tissues, hematopoietic tissues, lymphoid organ,
antennal gland and nervous tissues (Fig. 2-7). Electron microscopy, PCR, DNA
probe, Western Blot, and infection bioassay are confirmatony diagnostic tests.

Yellow Head Virus (YHV) CAUSATIVE AGENT:

Disease Rhabdovirus (40-50 x 150-170 nm)
SPECIES AFFECTED:
Subadults and broodstock of P. monodon, P. aztecus, P. duoraru m, P. merguien-
sis, P. setiferus, Palaemon styliferus, Acetes spp.
GROSS SIGNS:
Infected shrimps show light yellowish, swollen cephalothorax. The gills appear
whitish, yellowish or brown.
EFFECT ON HOST:
Before the appearance of clinical signs of disease, the shrimps develop an ab-
normally high feed intake and rapid growth. Thereafter, there is marked reduc- tion
in food consumption prior to cessation of feeding and the onset of rapidly
accelerating mortality. Moribund shrimps swim slowly near the surface at the edge
of the pond. Acute epizooties occur in juvenile to sub-adult shrimps about 20 days
post stocking especially during the 50-70 days grow-out culture period. The
occurrence of this disease may be associated with unstable phytoplankton bloom,
bad pond bottom, high stocking density or exposure to pesticides.
Systemic infection is associated with virus assembled in the cytoplasm of ecto-
dermal and mesodermal cells (gills, lymphoid organ, hemocytes and connec-

Viral diseases 17
 tive tissues). Massive necrosis is attributed to cytoplasmic replication of the
virus. The virus can cause a total crop loss within 3 to 5 days of onset of clini-
cal signs with incubation period of 7-10 days. The virus in water remain infec-
tive up to 72 h. Shrimp reservoirs include Palaemon styliferus. About 4 %
broodstock are infected. In the Philippines, a recent sampling of 250 shrimps
reported positive for YHV in 16% of specimens.
DIAGNOSIS:
Signs of disease and phase contrast microscopy of fresh hemolymph stained
with Wright/Giemsa stain. Histopathological analyses show the presence of
basophilic usually spherical, perinuclear cytoplasmic inclusions in the
hemocytes, lymphoid organ, hematopoietic tissues, pillar and epithelial cells in
the gills, spongy connective tissue cells in the subcutis, muscle, gut, antennal
gland, gonads, nerve tracts, ganglia and other cells of ectodermal and mesoder-
mal origin. Electron microscopy, Western blot, RT-PCR, and infection bioassay
are confirmatory diagnostic tests.

Monodon Baculovirus (MBV) CAUSATIVE AGENT:

Disease P. monodon-type baculovirus (75 x 300 nm)
SPECIES AFFECTED:
The giant tiger prawn Penaeus monodon, and other penaeid shrimps like P.
merguiensis, P. vannamei, P. esculentus, P. semisulcatus, P. penicillatus, P.
plebejus, P. kerathurus.
GROSS SIGNS:
Affected shrimps exhibit pale-bluish-gray to dark blue-black coloration, slug- gish
and inactive swimming movements, loss of appetite and retarded growth. An
increased growth of benthic diatoms and filamentous bacteria may cause fouling on
the exoskeleton / gills. Infected pond-reared shrimps at 45 days of culture (DOC)
stocked at 4 to 100 per m2 manifested slow growth rates and pale yellow to reddish
brown hepatopancreas.
EEFFECT ON HOST:
This is among the first viral infections diagnosed in mysis, postlarvae, juveniles
and adults of the giant tiger prawn, Penaeus monodon. The virus causes de-
struction of the hepatopancreas and lining of the digestive tract. Spherical,
eosinophilic occlusion bodies fill up enlarged nuclei of hepatopancreatic cells
and are discharged into the lumen after cells have been destroyed. This may be
followed by necrosis with secondary bacterial infection. PL-3 is the earliest
stage found infected with MBV. However, experimental waterborne inoculation
of MBV to mysis-2 (M-2), postlarvae-3 (PL-3), PL-6, PL-9 and PL-11 resulted in
MBV infections within 12 days post-inoculation. The incidence rate of MBV
was reported at 20-100%. Cumulative mortality of 70% was observed among P.
monodon juveniles cultured in raceways and tanks. It is associated with a high
incidence of bacterial infections expressed as localized “shell disease.” In addi-
tion, significant mortalities can occur during stress and crowding.

18 Health Management in Aquaculture

Figure 2-8. Squash preparation of the Penaeus monodon hepato- Figure 2-9. Histological section of the Penaeus monodon hepatopan-
pancreas showing normal cells and occlusion bodies of creas with occlusion bodies (OB) of Monodon Baculovirus (MBV)
MonodonBaculovirus (MBV) (arrow) (Malachite green stain, (Hematoxylin and Eosin, 400x)
400x)

DIAGNOSIS:
Demonstration of occlusion bodies in wet mounts of feces, midgut or hepato-
pancreas stained with malachite green (Fig. 2-8). Histological sections show
the presence of eosinophilic, multiple occlusion bodies within the hypertro-
phied nuclei of the hepatopancreatic tissues with the following development
(Fig. 2-9). Other diagnostic tests are DNA probe and PCR.

Stages of Cytopathology
Stage 0 Cell infected by MBV but cytopathic changes not yet apparent
Stage 1 Slight hypertrophy of the nucleus, chromatin margination, peripheral
migration of nucleolus. Viral replication is initiated.
Stage 2 Increased nuclear hypertrophy, proliferation of the virus and devel- opment
of eosinophilic occlusion bodies.
Stage 3 Hypertrophied nucleus up to twice the normal diameter and six times
the normal volume. One or more occlusion bodies and abundant viri-
ons are present

Infectious Hypodermal CAUSATIVE AGENT:

and Hematopoietic Virus Parvovirus (20-22 nm)
(IHHNV) Disease
SPECIES AFFECTED:
Postlarvae, juveniles and adults of P. monodon, P. stylirostris, P. vannamei, P.
semisulcatus, P. schmitti, P. setiferus, P. aztecus, P. duoraru m, P. californiensis
and P. japonicus.
GROSS SIGNS:
Shrimps show erratic swimming behavior, rising slowly to the water surface,
hanging and rolling over until the ventral side is up. Eventually, the animal

Viral diseases 19
 sinks to the bottom. Shrimps would eventually right themselves up,
become weak and lose their appetite for food. They repeat the process
of rising to the surface and sinking until they die usually within 4-12 h.
The shrimps manifests decreased preening and delayed molting.
Acutely affected shrimps develop white opaque abdominal muscles,
bluish to distinctly blue cuticular color often with mottled buff to tan
pigment patches in the cuticular hypodermis and very soft cuticles.
EFFECT ON HOST:
They have poor resistance to stress. Mortality rates of above 90% were
observed among penaeid juveniles in intensive culture systems. The virus
Figure 2-10. Histological section of P. infects cells of the ectodermal tissues (epidermis, hypodermal
monodon and antennal gland showing
intranuclear inclusion bodies of IHHNV epithelium of foregut and hindgut, nerve cord and nerve ganglia) and mesoder-
(arrows) (Hematoxylin and Eosin, mal tissues (hematopoietic organs, antennal gland, connective and striated
1000x) muscles, heart, gonad, mandibular organ, hemocytes). It induces the develop-
ment of eosinophilic inclusion bodies in the cytoplasm of affected cells during
the early acute stage of the disease, followed by necrosis and inflammation of
target tissues. The presence of the virus can cause death of the cells of the
cuticle, blood-forming tissues and connective tissues of the shrimp that leads
to abnormal metabolism and eventually mortalities. Inclusion bodies are com-
mon early in acute infections, later decreasing in number followed by necrosis
and inflammation of target tissues.
The disease can be experimentally induced in P. setiferus, M. japonicus, P.
aztecus and P. duorarum. It has been linked to the Runt deformity syndrome in
L. vannamei. Secondary bacterial infection may occur. Some survivors of epi-
zootics may carry the virus for life.
DIAGNOSIS:
Histological demonstration of eosinophilic intranuclear inclusion bodies (Fig. 2-10)
in the hepatopancreas by H & E staining. Electron microscopy, PCR, DNA probe,
infection bioassay are other diagnostic tests.

Hepatopancreatic Parvo-like CAUSATIVE AGENT:

Virus (HPV) Disease Parvovirus (22-24 nm)
SPECIES AFFECTED:
Postlarvae, juveniles and adults of P. monodon, P. merguiensis, P. vannamei, P.
esculentus, P. semisulcatus, P. penicillatus, P. indicus, P. chinensis.
GROSS SIGNS:
Affected shrimps develop loss of appetite and retarded growth. Benthic dia-
toms, protozoans such as Zoothamnium sp., and filamentous bacteria may
cause fouling on the exoskeleton of infected shrimps. Occasionally, white
opaque areas on the tail/ abdominal muscles are observed.

20 Health Management in Aquaculture

 EFFECT ON HOST:
Postlarvae (PL-1–PL-19) from three hatcheries in Iloilo showed prevalence
rates of 7.8 to 26.4%. Mortalities among P. merguiensis may reach as high 50%
within 4-8 weeks of disease onset. The virus cause hypertrophy of the
hepatopancreatic nucleus with lateral displacement and compression of the
nucleolus and chromatin margination with development of a prominent baso-
philic occlusion body. This leads to cell death and shrinkage of the hepatopan-
creas. Damage of this organ can result in abnormal metabolism and eventually
death.
DIAGNOSIS:
Signs of disease and histological demonstration of single prominent basophilic
(H&E stain) intranuclear occlusion body in the hypertrophied nucleus of the
Figure 2-11 . Histological section of the hepatopancreatic cell (Fig. 2-11) are diagnostic. Electron microscopy, DNA Probe,
hepatopancreas of Penaeus monodon PCR, infection bioassay are confirmatory tests.
infected with the Hepatopancreatic
Parvo-like virus (HPV). Arrows point
to occlusion body (Hematoxylin and
Eosin,400x)

PREVENTION OF VIRAL INFECTIONS

There are no treatments for viral infections in fish or shrimps. Hence, preven-
tive measures must be adapted to keep the viral pathogens away. The basic
consideration in preventing the occurrence of viral diseases is avoidance, and
the use of virus-free fry for stocking in ponds is highly recommended. It should
also be borne in mind that semi-intensive and intensive culture systems pro-
mote conditions conducive for disease development. As such, reduction of
stress and the application of good husbandry or efficient technology may deter
the occurrence of disease. Details on the general methods of disease prevention
are discussed in Chapters 9 and 10.
In addition, specific precautions of egg washing with ozone-disinfected seawa-
ter; using fine screens for inlet water and adherence to strict hygiene; stress test
of shrimp postlarvae (PLs) with 100 ppm formalin for 30 min with aeration and
stocking only tolerant PLs; the use of only dry commercial feeds and pasteur-
ized fresh feed at 60°C for 15 min before use; and feeding with feeds contain-
ing 100 ppm phosphated ascorbic acid (MAP) for 92 days were reported effec-
tive for viral infections. For WSSV management, the effective use of
immunostimulants mixed with feed such as peptidoglycan (PG) at 0.2 mg/ kg
body weight/ day for 2-3 months or Fucoidan, an extract from Cladosiphon
okamurans at 50-100 mg/ kg shrimp / day for 15 days, were reported to increase
survival of WSSV-exposed shrimps.
It is also important that surveillance for early signs of disease and stressful
factors become essential components of farm/ hatchery management in order
to monitor the health status of fish stocks, to assess adequacy of rearing proce-
dures and to prevent introduction of pathogens. Early detection of a disease

Viral diseases 21
 outbreak will reduce mortalities and prevent a catastrophic spread of the virus.
Finally, since virus can remain viable outside the living host for at least 72 hr, water
change should be contemplated only at least 5 days after effluents from infected
ponds in the area have been discharged.

SUMMARY

Outbreaks of viral infections can cause massive mortalities among cultured

fishes or shrimps. Water temperature and age of the fish or shrimps are signifi-
cant factors that influence the development of viral infections. Most fish viral
infections occur at low water temperatures, hence, very few viral infections
among fishes in warm water culture systems are reported. In addition, most
viral infections occur among fry or fingerlings often causing severe mortalities,
while older fish or shrimp develop resistance or are hardly affected. Stress from
handling, poor water quality, high stocking density and poor nutrition also
affect the severity of viral infections.

Finally, aquaculturists should beware in importing non-indigenous fish or shrimps

into the country as these are potential carriers of viral pathogens.

22 Health Management in Aquaculture