Systems In Mechanical Engineering

Unit no.1

Thermodynamics
 Thermodynamics
• A branch of Engg. Science which deals with energy
transfer & its effect on physical properties of
substances.
• Thermodynamics is the science that primarily deals
with energy
• Energy => Ability to cause Change
• Science that deals with heat and work and properties
of substance that bear a relation with heat and work
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 Areas of Application of Thermodynamics:
1)All natural processes are governed by the principles of
thermodynamics.

2)engineering devices are typically designed based on the

principles of thermodynamics.

3)Automotive engines, Turbines, Compressors, Pumps,

Fossil and Nuclear Power Plants, Propulsion systems for the
Aircrafts, Separation and Liquefaction Plant, Refrigeration,
Air-conditioning and Heating Devices.

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Thermodynamic ,basically depends on four laws – Zeroth ,first, second and third law of
thermodynamic.

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 Thermodynamic Systems
• Thermodynamics system is defined as a quantity of
matter or region in space chosen for study.

• The mass or region outside the system is called the

surroundings

• System boundary is the real and imaginary surface that

separates the system from the surrounding. Boundary
can be fixed or movable

• May be closed or open

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Thermodynamic system is a quantity of matter or
region in space chosen for study.

SURROUNDINGS

SYSTEM BOUNDRY
 Closed System/Control Mass
• A system of fixed mass is called a closed system, or
control mass

• The closed system boundary does not have to be fixed

• No mass can cross the closed system boundary

• Energy in the form of heat and work can cross the

closed system boundary.

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Closed System/Control Mass
E.g hot water stored in tank ,cylinder with movable
piston.

Energy, not mass, crosses Closed system with moving boundary

closed-system boundaries
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 Open System / Control Volume
• A system that involves mass transfer & energy
transfer across its boundaries is called an open
system, or control volume

• The boundaries of a control volume is called control

boundaries and is fixed in shape and position

• Energy in the form of heat and work as well as mass

can cross the control boundaries
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 Open System / Control Volume
Mass and Energy Cross Control Volume Boundaries
e.g. I.C. Engine, air compressor, gas turbine

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 Isolated System

no interaction between system

& surrounding

no mass & energy transfer

Eg:- Thermas
 Thermodynamic Properties

• Every system has certain characteristics like

volume, temperature, Pressure, mass, density by
which its physical condition may be described.
Such characteristics is known as thermodynamic
properties.

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 Types of Thermodynamic Properties
• Extensive properties are the mass-dependent
properties of a system. i.e. the properties that
will vary proportionally with mass of the system.
E.g. volume

• Intensive properties are the properties that are

independent of mass.
Eg. Temperature, density.
Intensive and Extensive Properties

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 State of a System
• Definition - A set of properties that completely describe
the conditions or characteristics of a system

• At a given state, all the properties of a system

have fixed values

• State of a system will change when the properties of a

system change

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 Change of State

• Any operation in which one or more

of properties of system changes is
known as change of state.
 Steady state
Steady state

Under the steady state condition, the

properties of the system at any location are
independent of time.
 Thermodynamic Equilibrium
• Thermodynamics deals with Equilibrium States

• A system is said to be in thermodynamic equilibrium if it

maintains thermal, mechanical, phase, and chemical
equilibrium.

• Thermal Equilibrium => Temperature is the same

throughout the system

• Mechanical Equilibrium => Mechanical equilibrium means

there is no unbalanced force.

• Phase Equilibrium => No phase change process in the system

• Chemical Equilibrium => No chemical reactions

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 Process, Path and Cycle
• Process - When the system
changes from one
equilibrium state to another
state, then the change of
state is called a process.

• Path - The series of state

through which a system
passes during a process is
called a path

• Cycle - A process with

identical end states is called
a cycle. 20
TYPES OF PROCESS
Isothermal process: A process during
which the temperature T remains
constant.
Isobaric process: A process during
which the pressure P remains
constant.
Isochoric (or isometric) process: A
process during which the specific
volume v remains constant.

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 POINT FUNCTION AND PATH FUNCTION
Point function:
When a system undergoes a change from
one state to another the properties of
the system depends only on end states
and not on the path followed between
these two states. Therefore ,properties
are called state function or point
function.

Path Function :
A quantity whose value depends on the
particular path followed during any
process is called as path function.
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 Quasi-Equilibrium Process
• Definition - A process whereby the system remains
infinitesimally close to an equilibrium states at all times

• During a quasi-static or quasi-equilibrium process, the

system remains practically in equilibrium at all times

• A sufficiently slow process that allows the system to

adjust itself internally so that properties in one part of
the system do not change any faster than those at other
parts

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Quasi-Equilibrium Work Producing Device

Quasi-Equilibrium Quasi-Equilibrium
Process is Idealized Process Delivers the
Process Most Work

Many Real Process

Closely Approximate
Quasi-Equilibrium
Process
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 State, Path, Process and Cycle
Compressed Process P-V Diagram

Each Point Along the Path is in Quasi-

Equilibrium State

If the Process returns to its initial

State then we have a Cycle

If the Outgoing and Returning Paths

are Different ~ Net work is Produced
(+ve or -ve)

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 Form of Energy
• The sum of all forms of energy of a system is called Total
Energy, which is considered to consist of internal, kinetic,
and potential energies.
E = U + mV2/2 + mgz

• Internal energy represents the molecular energy of a

system and may exist in sensible, latent, chemical, and
nuclear forms. Represented by symbol, U.

• Kinetic Energy is the energy that a system possesses as a

results of its motion relative to some reference frame.
KE = mV2/2

• Potential Energy is the energy that a system possesses as a

results of its elevation in a gravitational field. PE = mgz 26
 System’s Internal Energy

System’s Internal Energy = Sum of Microscopic Energies

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Force - defined as a force when applied to a body having mass of 1kg ,gives
acceleration of 1 m/s.
unit – Newton

Work – which is defined as work done when a force of 1 newton is exerted

through a distance of 1 m in the direction of force . Unit is joule .
hence 1 joule= 1 Nm

Energy - capacity for doing work ,different types of energy such as

mechanical ,chemical electrical,
1kwh=3.6x106 J

Power – Rate of doing work 1joule /sec or 1 Newton /sec

1Nm/s= 1J/s=1watt

Pressure- force applied per unit area . 1 pascal= 1 N/m2

1 bar= 105 N/M2=105 Pa 28
 Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
• Temperature is a measure of ‘hotness’ or ‘coldness’
• The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that two
bodies are in thermal equilibrium if both have the same
temperature reading even if they are not in contact.

• Basis for validity of Temperature Measurement

• More fundamental than 1st and 2nd Laws of

Thermodynamics

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 Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

Statement: If a body 1 is in thermal equilibrium with body 2 and

body 3, then the body 2 and body 3 are also in thermal
equilibrium with each other

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First Law of Thermodynamics :- Joules Experiment
A series of Experiments carried out by Joule between 1843 and 1848 from the basis
for the First Law of Thermodynamics

The following are the observations during the Paddle Wheel experiment shown in Fig

The following are the observations during the Paddle Wheel

experiment shown in Fig

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Joule’s Experiment

SME unit 2 VVA 34

 A Perpetual Motion Machine of First Kind

An imaginary device which would produce work continuously without

absorbing any energy from its surroundings is called a Perpetual Motion
Machine of the First kind, (PMMFK). A PMMFK is a device which violates the
first law of thermodynamics. It is impossible to devise a PMMFK .

The converse of the above statement is also true, i.e., there can be
no machine which would continuously consume work without some
other form of energy appearing simultaneously.

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 Limitation of First Law of Thermodynamics

•No limit to amount of total energy of a system

which can be caused to flow out as work

•Does not specifies condition under which

conversion of heat into work is possible neither the
direction in which heat transfer can take place.

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Kelvin Plancks Statement

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 Heat Engine
•A heat engine is a device which converts the energy it receives at heat, into work.

•It is a cyclically operating device.

•It receives energy as heat form a high temperature body, converts part of it
into work and rejects the rest to a low temperature body.

A thermal power plant is an example of a heat engine

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 Work done by the system
of a heat engine can be expressed as
Energy absorbed as heat by the system

Energy rejected as heat by the system

According to first law of

thermodynamics, the heat and work
interaction are related by the equation

Finally, the thermal efficiency

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 T1 Hot body
Q1
Heat E WE
engine Q2
T2 Cold
body
T1 > T2
 Refrigerator

A refrigerator is a cyclically operating device which absorbs

energy as heat from a low temperature body and rejects energy
as heat to a high temperature body when work is performed on
the device.

The objective of this device is to refrigerate a body at low

temperature.

Usually it uses atmosphere as the high temperature reservoir.

The efficiency of Refrigerator & Heat Pump is expressed in

terms of Coefficient of Performance (COP)
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High Temperature Reservoir
(Atmosphere)

Heat Rejected

Work Input
R

Heat Absorbed

Low Temperature Reservoir

 T2 Hot body
Q2 = Q1 + W R
Refrigerator R WR
Q1
COP = Desired effect
----------------------
Energy Input
T1 Cold
COP = Q1/Wr body
COP = Q1/Q2-Q1 T1 < T2
 Heat Pump
Heat Pump is cyclically operating device which
absorbs energy form a low temperature reservoir
and reject energy as heat to a high temperature
reservoir when work is performed on the device.

Its objective is to reject energy as heat to a

high temperature body (space heating in winter).

The atmosphere acts as the low temperature

reservoir.
 T2 Hot body
Q2 = Q1 + W P
Heat pump Hp WP

COP = Desired effect

Q1
----------------------
Energy Input
T1 Ambient
COP = Q2/Wp
temperature
COP = Q2/Q2-Q1
body
 Difference between Heat Engine and Heat Pump

Heat Engine Heat Pump

It is a work developing device It is a work absorbing device

It obeys Kelvin Plank’s statement of It obeys Clausius statement of second law of
second law of thermodynamics. thermodynamics.
In heat engine, heat is supplied from a In heat pump, heat is pumped from heat sink and
heat source and mechanical work is it is supplied to a hot body on consuming
produced with rejection of some external work supplied
quantity of heat to heat sink
Its performance is measured in terms Its performance is measured in terms of
of “Efficiency” “Coefficient of Performance”
η= W / Q1 COP = Q2 / W
Efficiency is always less than 100% COP is always greater than 1
 Difference between Heat Engine and Refrigerator

Heat Engine Refrigerator

It is a work developing device It is a work absorbing device

It obeys Kelvin Plank’s statement of It obeys Clausius statement of second law of
second law of thermodynamics. thermodynamics.
In heat engine, heat is supplied from a In refrigerator, heat is pumped from heat sink
heat source and mechanical work is and it is supplied to a hot body on consuming
produced with rejection of some external work supplied
quantity of heat to heat sink
Its performance is measured in terms Its performance is measured in terms of
of “Efficiency” “Coefficient of Performance”
η= W / Q1 COP = Q1 / W
η= ( T1 – T2 ) / T1 COP = T2 / (T1 – T2)
 ENTHALPY:- (h)

• The total heat content of the system

• The sum of internal Energy (U) & pressure volume

Product (PV) is known as Enthalpy.

• h = U + PV
CARNOT CYCLE
The cycle was first suggested by a French engineer Sadi Carnot in 1824 which
works on reversible cycle and is known as Carnot cycle.
Carnot cycle which is performed in an engine cylinder the head of which is
supposed alternatively to be perfect conductor or a perfect insulator of a heat.
The assumptions made for describing the working of the Carnot engine are as follows
:
(i) The piston moving in a cylinder does not develop any friction during motion.
(ii) The walls of piston and cylinder are considered as perfect insulators of heat.
(iii) The cylinder head is so arranged that it can be a perfect heat conductor or perfect
heat insulator.
(iv) The transfer of heat does not affect the temperature of source or sink.
(v) Working medium is a perfect gas and has constant specific heat.
(vi) Compression and expansion are reversible.
Stage 1. (Process 1-2). Hot energy source is applied. Heat Q1 is taken in whilst the fluid
expands isothermally and reversibly at constant high temperature T1.

Stage 2. (Process 2-3). The cylinder becomes a perfect insulator so that no heat flow
takes place. The fluid expands adiabatically and reversibly whilst temperature falls from
T1 to T2.

Stage 3. (Process 3-4). Cold energy source is applied. Heat Q2 flows from the fluid whilst
it is compressed isothermally and reversibly at constant lower temperature T2.

Stage 4. (Process 4-1). Cylinder head becomes a perfect insulator so that no heat flow
occurs. The compression is continued adiabatically and reversibly during which
temperature is raised from T2 to T1.
 The work delivered from the system during the cycle is represented by the enclosed
area of the cycle. For a closed cycle, according to first law of the thermodynamics
the work obtained is equal to the difference between the heat supplied by the
source (Q1) and the heat rejected to the sink (Q2).

The Carnot cycle cannot be performed in practice because of the following reasons :
1. It is imposible to perform a frictionless process.

2. It is impossible to transfer the heat without temperature potential.

3. Isothermal process can be achieved only if the piston moves very slowly to allow heat
transfer so that the temperature remains contant. Adiabatic process can be achieved
only if the piston moves as fast as possible so that the heat transfer is negligible due to
very short time available.
CARNOT’S THEOREM
“It states that of all engines operating between a given constant temperature
source and a given constant temperature sink, none has a higher efficiency than a
reversible engine”.

The efficiency of an irreversible heat engine is always less than the efficiency
of a reversible one operating between the same two reservoirs.

The efficiencies of all reversible heat engines operating between the same two
reservoirs are the same.
 NUMERICALS BASED ON HE,HP &
REFRIGERATOR
1) Heat at the rate of 1700 kJ/min is supplied to the Heat engine and gives output
of 9 kW. Determine thermal efficiency and the rate of heat rejection.(31.76%,
19.33 kW)

2) A heat engine operates between a source temperature of 800C and a sink

temperature of 30C. What is the least rate of heat rejection per kW net output
of an engine. (0.393 kW)

3) A heat engine operates between a source and sink temperature of 235C and
30C. If heat engine receives 35 kW from the heat source, find (i) The net work
done by the heat engine, (ii) The heat rejected to the sink by the engine, and
(iii) Efficiency of engine Draw sketch of system. (14.12 kW, 20.87 kW, 40.35%)

4) A heat pump is used to maintained the house at 25C. The house is losing the
heat at the rate of 60000 kJ/hr to the surrounding, while the heat generated in
the house by various appliances is 4000 kJ/hr. If COP of heat pump is 1.5, find
the power required to drive the heat pump. (10.37 kW)
5) A heat pump is used to maintain the house at 24C. The house is losing the heat
at the rate of 1800 kJ/min to the surrounding. The heat pump is driven by an
electric motor of power 12 kW. Find: (i) The amount of heat absorbed from
surrounding and (ii) COP of the heat pump. Draw the sketch of the system.
(18 kW, 2.5)

6) A fish freezing plant is to be maintained at -10C. If the power required to drive

the plant is 30 kW and COP of refrigeration system is 3, find:
(i) Heat absorbed from the freezing plant and
(ii) Heat rejected to surrounding
Draw sketch of the system. ( 90 kW, 120 kW)

7) A household refrigerator with COP of 1.8 removes heat from the refrigerated
space at the rate of 90 kJ/min. Determine,
(i) The amount of heat rejected to kitchen,
(ii) Electrical power consumed by refrigerator.
(140 kJ/min, 0.833 kW)
Thank you