Head to [Link].

uk for more awesome resources

YOUR NOTES
GCSE Biology Edexcel 

6. Plant Structures & their Functions

CONTENTS
6.1 Photosynthesis
6.1.1 Photosynthesis
6.1.2 Limiting Factors
6.1.3 Light & the Rate of Photosynthesis
6.1.4 Practical: Investigating Light & Photosynthesis
6.2 Plant Structure
6.2.1 Root Hair Cells
6.2.2 Xylem & Phloem
6.2.3 Structure of the Leaf
6.2.4 Living in Extreme Conditions
6.3 Transport in Plants
6.3.1 Transport of Water & Mineral Ions
6.3.2 Factors Affecting the Rate of Water Uptake
6.3.3 Translocation
6.4 Plant Hormones
6.4.1 Plant Hormones & Growth
6.4.2 Using Plant Hormones Commercially

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6.1 Photosynthesis YOUR NOTES


6.1.1 Photosynthesis

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Photosynthesis YOUR NOTES

Photosynthesis is an endothermic reaction in which energy from sunlight is transferred to 
the chloroplasts in green plants
Green plants use this energy to make the carbohydrate glucose from the raw materials
carbon dioxide and water
At the same time, oxygen is made and released as a waste product
Photosynthesis can be defined as the process by which plants manufacture
carbohydrates from raw materials using energy from light
Plants are
Autotrophs – they can make complex molecules (glucose) from simple molecules
(carbon dioxide and water)
Producers - they can make their own food and so are the first organism at the start of
all food chains
E.g. Plants and algae
Photosynthesis can be summarised in a word equation as shown below:

Word equation for photosynthesis

Where do the reactants come from and where do the products go?
This equation can also be shown as a balanced chemical equation

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Six carbon dioxide molecules combine with six water molecules to make one glucose YOUR NOTES
molecule and six oxygen molecules 

The balanced chemical equation for photosynthesis

The products of photosynthesis
Plants use the glucose they make as a source of energy in respiration
They can also use it to
Produce starch for storage
Synthesise lipids for an energy source in seeds
To form cellulose to make cell walls
Produce amino acids (used to make proteins) when combined with nitrogen and other
mineral ions absorbed by roots

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YOUR NOTES


The fate of glucose molecules produced in photosynthesis

 Exam Tip
If asked for the raw materials required for photosynthesis, the answer is carbon
dioxide and [Link] required for the reaction to take place, light energy is
not a substance and therefore cannot be a raw material.

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6.1.2 Limiting Factors YOUR NOTES



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Limiting Factors YOUR NOTES

Plants do not have unlimited supplies of their raw materials so their rate of photosynthesis 
is limited by whatever factor is the lowest at that time
So a limiting factor can be defined as something present in the environment in such short
supply that it restricts life processes
There are three main factors that limit the rate of photosynthesis:
Temperature
Light intensity
Carbon dioxide concentration
Although water is necessary for photosynthesis, it is not considered a limiting factor as the
amount needed is relatively small compared to the amount of water transpired from a plant
so there is hardly ever a situation where there is not enough water for photosynthesis
The number of chloroplasts or the amount of chlorophyll in the chloroplasts can also affect
the rate of photosynthesis
Temperature
The temperature of the environment affects how much kinetic energy all particles have –
so temperature affects the speed at which carbon dioxide and water move through a plant
By affecting how much kinetic energy particles have, temperature also determines
enzyme activity
The lower the temperature, the less kinetic energy particles have, resulting in fewer
successful collisions occurring between reactants and enzymes over a period of time
Increasing temperature increases the kinetic energy of particles, increasing the
likelihood of successful collisions between reactants and enzymes, which leads to
increased formation of products
At higher temperatures, however, enzymes that control the processes of
photosynthesis can be denatured (where the active site changes shape and is no
longer complementary to its substrate) – this reduces the overall rate of
photosynthesis

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The effect of temperature on the rate of photosynthesis

Light intensity
The intensity of the light available to the plant affects the rate of photosynthesis
The more light a plant receives, the faster the rate of photosynthesis
This trend will continue until some other factor required for photosynthesis prevents the
rate from increasing further because it is now in short supply

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

Graph showing the effect of light intensity on the rate of photosynthesis. At low light
intensities, increasing the intensity will initially increase the rate of photosynthesis. At a
certain point, increasing the light intensity stops increasing the rate. The rate becomes
constant regardless of how much light intensity increases as something else is limiting the
rate.
Carbon dioxide concentration
Carbon dioxide is one of the raw materials required for photosynthesis
This means the more carbon dioxide that is present, the faster the reaction can occur
This trend will continue until some other factor required for photosynthesis prevents the
rate from increasing further because it is now in short supply

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A graph showing the effect of the concentration of carbon dioxide on the rate of
photosynthesis
Chlorophyll
The number of chloroplasts (as they contain the pigment chlorophyll which absorbs light
energy for photosynthesis) will affect the rate of photosynthesis
The more chloroplasts a plant has, the faster the rate of photosynthesis
The number of chloroplasts (or amount of chlorophyll they contain) can be affected by:
Diseases (such as tobacco mosaic virus)
Lack of nutrients (such as magnesium)
Loss of leaves (fewer leaves means fewer chloroplasts)

 Exam Tip
Interpreting graphs of limiting factors can be confusing for many students, but it’s
quite simple. In the section of the graph where the rate is increasing (the line is going
up), the limiting factor is whatever the label on the x axis (the bottom axis) of the
graph is. In the section of the graph where the rate is not increasing (the line is
horizontal), the limiting factor will be something other than what is on the x axis –
choose from temperature, light intensity or carbon dioxide concentration.

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6.1.3 Light & the Rate of Photosynthesis YOUR NOTES


Light & the Rate of Photosynthesis
The intensity of the light available to a plant determines the amount of energy that it has to
carry out photosynthesis
This means that more light a plant receives, the faster the rate of photosynthesis
In other words, the rate of photosynthesis is directly
proportional to light intensity
However, the intensity of the light available to a plant depends on how far the light source
is from the plant
The further away a plant is from a light source, the lower the rate of photosynthesis
In other words, the rate of photosynthesis is inversely
proportional to the distance from the light source
Light intensity & distance
A light meter can be used to measure light intensity
Light intensity outside (natural light) changes gradually throughout the day as the sun rises
and sets
Artificial light sources (e.g. bulbs) can also vary in light intensity when they are at different
distances from a plant
As a light source gets further away from a plant (i.e. as the distance from a light source
increases), the light intensity decreases
Also, therefore, as the distance decreases, the light intensity increases
This means that light intensity is inversely proportional to the distance between the plant
and the light source
Light intensity actually decreases in proportion to the square of the distance - this is known
as the inverse square law
Therefore, the inverse square law is as follows:
light intensity ∝ 1 ÷ distance2
For example, if the distance between a plant and a light source was doubled, the light
intensity would be four times smaller

 Exam Tip
Here are a couple of tips to help you understand the inverse square law:
The symbol '∝' means "is proportional to"
If 'x' is inversely proportional to 'y', it is also true to say that 'x' is proportional
to '1 ÷ y'

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6.1.4 Practical: Investigating Light & Photosynthesis YOUR NOTES



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Practical: Investigating Light & Photosynthesis YOUR NOTES

Investigations to determine the effects of light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration and 
temperature on the rate of photosynthesis can be carried out using aquatic plants, such
as Elodea or Cabomba (types of pondweed)
The effect of these limiting factors on the rate of photosynthesis can be investigated in the
following ways:
Light intensity – change the distance (d) of a light source from the plant (light intensity
is proportional to 1/d2)
Carbon dioxide concentration – add different quantities of sodium
hydrogencarbonate (NaHCO3) to the water surrounding the plant, this dissolves to
produce CO2
Temperature (of the solution surrounding the plant) – place the boiling tube
containing the submerged plant in water baths of different temperatures
Whilst changing one of these factors during the investigation (as described below), ensure
the other two remain constant
For example, when investigating the effect of light intensity on the rate of
photosynthesis, a glass tank should be placed in between the lamp and the boiling
tube containing the pondweed to absorb heat from the lamp – this prevents the
solution surrounding the plant from changing temperature
Apparatus
Beaker
Scalpel
Pondweed
Boiling tube
Boiling tube bung
Solution of water and sodium hydrogencarbonate
Water bath
Light source
Ruler
Prongs
Gas syringe
Thermometer

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YOUR NOTES


The set up of the experiment to measure the rate of photosynthesis of an aquatic plant
(pondweed) by measuring the rate of oxygen gas produced. All three limiting factors can be
assessed this way
Method
Step 1: Ensure the water is well aerated before use by bubbling air through it
This will ensure oxygen gas given off by the plant during the investigation form
bubbles and do not dissolve in the water
Step 2: Ensure the plant has been well illuminated before use
This will ensure that the plant contains all the enzymes required for photosynthesis and
that any changes of rate are due to the independent variable
Step 3: Set up the apparatus in a darkened room
Ensure the pondweed is submerged in sodium hydrogencarbonate solution (1%) –
this ensures the pondweed has a controlled supply of carbon dioxide (a reactant in
photosynthesis)
Step 4: Cut the stem of the pondweed cleanly just before placing into the boiling tube
Step 5: Measure the volume of gas collected in the gas-syringe in a set period of time (eg.
5 minutes)
Step 6: Change the independent variable - move the light source closer and repeat step 5
Step 7: Record the results in a table and plot a graph of volume of oxygen produced per
minute against the distance from the lamp
Results and analysis
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Initially, as the distance from the light source decreases, the volume of oxygen produced YOUR NOTES
increases 
This is because as the light intensity increases, the rate of photosynthesis increases
At a certain point, light is no longer the limiting factor and so an increase in light intensity
(decrease in the distance) will not result in an increase in photosynthesis
Another factor is limiting the rate of photosynthesis e.g. carbon dioxide concentration
In this experiment, care needs to be taken to ensure that the temperature is not affected as
the light source moves closer
Applying CORMS evaluation to practical work
When working with practical investigations, remember to consider your CORMS evaluation

CORMS evaluation
In this investigation, your evaluation should look something like this:
C - We are changing the distance of the light source from the pondweed
O - The same plant or same species, age/size of plant is used
R - We will repeat the investigation several times to ensure our results are reliable
M1 - We will observe the volume of oxygen produced
M2 - ...after a given time
S - We will control the temperature of the room and carbon dioxide concentration

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6.2 Plant Structure YOUR NOTES


6.2.1 Root Hair Cells

Root Hair Cells

Uptake of water into the root
Root hair cells are adapted for the efficient uptake of water (by osmosis) and mineral ions
(by active transport)
Root hairs are single-celled extensions of epidermis cells in the root
They grow between soil particles and absorb water and minerals from the soil
Root hairs increase the surface area to volume ratio significantly
This increases the rate of the absorption of mineral ions by active transport
The high proportion of dissolved minerals and sugars in the cytoplasm (of the root hair cell)
gives it a low water potential (less watery)
This causes water to move into the root hair cell by osmosis

A root hair cell

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YOUR NOTES


The structure of a root specifically allows it to maximise absorption of water by osmosis and
mineral ions by active transport

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6.2.2 Xylem & Phloem YOUR NOTES


Xylem & Phloem
A xylem vessel

Xylem cells lose their top and bottom walls to form a continuous tube through which water
moves through from the roots to the leaves
Function: transport tissue for water and dissolved mineral ions
Adaptations:
No top and bottom walls between cells to form continuous hollow tubes through
which water is drawn upwards towards the leaves by transpiration
Cells are essentially dead, without organelles or cytoplasm, to allow free passage of
water
Outer walls are thickened with a substance called lignin, strengthening the tubes,
which helps support the plant
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Phloem cells YOUR NOTES



Phloem cells form tubes similar to xylem vessels, except the cells still retain some
subcellular structures and are therefore living
Function: transport of dissolved sugars (e.g. sucrose) and amino acids
Adaptations:
Made of living cells (as opposed to xylem vessels, which are made of dead cells) that
are supported by companion cells
Cells are joined end-to-end and contain holes in the end cell walls (sieve plates)
forming tubes which allow sugars and amino acids to flow easily through (by
translocation)
Cells also have very few subcellular structures to aid the flow of materials

 Exam Tip
You may be given some information (including an image) about an unfamiliar cell in
an exam, and asked to describe how it’s able to carry out its function. This shouldn’t
faze you – just look at the shape of the cell and its subcellular [Link] the
cell have a shape which increases its surface area? Are there lots of ribosomes to
make proteins (such as enzymes or hormones), or lots of mitochondria (to transfer
lots of energy via respiration)?

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6.2.3 Structure of the Leaf YOUR NOTES



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Structure of the Leaf YOUR NOTES

Plant leaves have complex structures with layers of different tissues containing specially 
adapted cells
The table below describes the different structures in a leaf and their functions
Leaf Structures Table

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YOUR NOTES


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YOUR NOTES


Diagram showing the cross-section of a leaf

The specialised cells in leaves have adaptive features which allow them to carry out a
particular function in the plant

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Adaptations of Plant Leaves for Photosynthesis Table YOUR NOTES



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6.2.4 Living in Extreme Conditions YOUR NOTES


Living in Extreme Conditions
Some organisms live in environments that are very extreme, such as at very high or low
temperatures, pressures, or high salt concentrations
An example of habitats where extremophiles are found are deep-sea volcanic vents,
where the conditions are extremely hot, under high pressure and there is no sunlight
Plants are adapted to survive in extreme environments including through adaptations to
their leaf size and shape, their cuticle and stomata
Xerophytic plants
Plants that live in conditions with a plentiful supply of freshwater have leaves with a short
diffusion distance through the stomata and a large surface area provided by the air
spaces in the spongy mesophyll
These factors make them vulnerable to water loss
Plants that live in conditions where freshwater is limited have evolved very effective
adaptations to conserve water, including:
Very few stomata
Sunken stomata
Hairs surrounding stomata
Needle-shaped or small leaves
Waxy cuticle
Plants with these adaptations are described as xerophytic

Image showing how sunken stomata protects the escaping water vapour from the external
air currents
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Cacti YOUR NOTES

Cacti are well-studied xerophytes usually found in the deserts of the USA 
They have several characteristics adaptations
Their leaves have become spines that can no longer photosynthesise
Photosynthesis occurs in the green stem which possesses chloroplasts
The stem has a thick cuticle and is very large in diameter which allows it to store
water
There are both shallow and deep penetrating roots which allow it to access all
available water

Image showing the adaptations of a Cactus that enables it to survive in dry, hot
environments
Marram Grass
Sand dunes are another example of a dry environment where plants have evolved to survive
Marram grass is commonly found on these sand dunes
Their leaves are well adapted to minimise water loss:
Leaves can roll up to reduce the exposure of surfaces to the wind
The rolling of the leaf provides deep grooves which protect the stomata
The exposed surface has no stomata and a thick cuticle
The inner surface of the leaf possesses a large number of hairs to trap air

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YOUR NOTES


Image showing how the adaptations of the leaf causes water vapour to be trapped and
retained near the stomata. This humid air near the stomata means the water potential
gradient out of the leaf is reduced, so the rate of evaporation decreases.

 Exam Tip
Most plants have a mechanism to balance gas exchange with water loss - if the
guard cells that open the stomata lose water and become flaccid due to
dehydration, then the stomata close and no more water can be lost through them.

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6.3 Transport in Plants YOUR NOTES


6.3.1 Transport of Water & Mineral Ions

Transport of Water & Mineral Ions

The structure of root hair cells, xylem and phloem are adapted to their functions
The roots, stem and leaves form a plant organ system for transport of substances around
the plant
Functions of xylem & phloem
Plants contain two types of transport vessel: xylem and phloem
Xylem (pronounced: zi-lem) vessels:
Transport water and minerals from the roots to the stem and leaves
Are composed of hollow tubes strengthened by lignin adapted for the transport of
water in the transpiration stream
Phloem (pronounced: flow-em) vessels:
Transport food materials (mainly sucrose and amino acids) made by the plant from
photosynthesising leaves to non-photosynthesising regions in the roots and stem
Xylem and phloem vessels are arranged throughout the root, stem and leaves in groups
called vascular bundles

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YOUR NOTES


The location of vascular tissues in the stem and roots of a plant

Osmosis causes water to pass into the root hair cells, through the root cortex and into the
xylem vessels:

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YOUR NOTES


Pathway of water into and across a root

Once the water gets into the xylem, it is carried up to the leaves where it enters mesophyll
cells
The pathway is:
root hair cell → root cortex cells → xylem → leaf mesophyll cells
Stomata and guard cells
Stomata (specifically the guard cells) control the diffusion of gases in and out of leaves
This means stomata control the entry of carbon dioxide into leaves
Stomata open and close in a daily rhythm
Even when the plant is kept in constant light or constant darkness, the daily rhythm of
opening and closing of the stomata continues
Opening of stomata during the day:
Maintains the inward diffusion of carbon dioxide and the outward diffusion of
oxygen
Allows the outward diffusion of water vapour in transpiration
Closing of stomata at night when photosynthesis cannot occur:
Reduces the rate of transpiration
Conserves water

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YOUR NOTES


Guard cells and the stomata. When the guard cells are turgid the stoma is open. Once the
guard cells lose water by osmosis and become flaccid, the stoma closes.
Transpiration
Transpiration is defined as the loss of water vapour from the parts of the plant that are
above ground (leaves, stem, flowers)
Loss of water occurs through evaporation of water at the surfaces of the spongy
mesophyll cells followed by diffusion of water vapour through the stomata
The many interconnecting air spaces between the mesophyll cells and the stomata
creates a large surface area
This means evaporation can happen rapidly when the stomata are open

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YOUR NOTES


Transpiration in plants
Water moves through the xylem vessels in a continuous transpiration stream from the
roots to the leaves via the stem to replace the water that has been lost due to transpiration
Due to cohesion, the water in the xylem creates a continuous unbroken column (each
individual molecule ‘pulls’ on the one below it)
Transpiration produces tension or ‘pulls’ on the water in the xylem vessels
If the rate of transpiration from the leaves increases, water molecules are pulled up the
xylem vessels quicker

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YOUR NOTES


Water uptake, transport and transpiration

The function of transpiration
Transpiration has several functions in plants:
Transporting mineral ions
Providing water to keep cells turgid in order to support the structure of the plant
Providing water to leaf cells for photosynthesis
Keeping the leaves cool, the conversion of water (liquid) into water vapour (gas) as it
leaves the cells and enters the airspace requires heat energy. The use of heat to
convert water into water vapour helps to cool the plant down

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6.3.2 Factors Affecting the Rate of Water Uptake YOUR NOTES


Factors Affecting the Rate of Water Uptake
There are several environmental conditions that have an impact on the rate of
transpiration or water uptake
Air movement
Humidity
Light intensity
Temperature
The table below explains how these four factors affect the rate of transpiration when they
are all high; the opposite effect would be observed if they were low
Factors Affecting the Rate of Transpiration Table

Investigating the effect of environmental factors on the rate of

transpiration

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We can investigate the effect of different environmental conditions (such as temperature, YOUR NOTES
humidity, light intensity and wind movement) on the rate of transpiration using a piece of 
apparatus called a potometer
There are 2 types of potometer:
A mass potometer measures a change in mass of a plant as a measure of the amount
of water that has evaporated from the leaves and stem
A bubble potometer measures the uptake of water by a stem as a measure of the
amount of water that is being lost by evaporation consequently pulling water up
through the stem to replace it

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YOUR NOTES


There are 2 different types of potometer that could be used to investigate the effect of
environmental conditions on transpiration
Apparatus
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Potometer (bubble or mass potometer) YOUR NOTES

Timer 
Lamp
Ruler
Plant
Method
Cut a shoot underwater
To prevent air entering the xylem and place in tube
Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram and make sure it is airtight, using Vaseline to
seal any gaps
Dry the leaves of the shoot
Wet leaves will affect the results
Remove the capillary tube from the beaker of water to allow a single air bubble to form and
place the tube back into the water
Set up a lamp 10 cm from the leaf
Allow the plant to adapt to the new environment for 5 minutes
Record the starting location of the air bubble
Leave for 30 minutes
Record the end location of the air bubble
Change the light intensity
Reset the bubble by opening the tap below the reservoir
Repeat the experiment
Calculate the rate of transpiration by dividing the distance the bubble travelled by the time
period
The further the bubble travels in the same time period, the greater the rate of
transpiration

Calculating the rate of transpiration using a bubble potometer

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

Investigating transpiration rates using a potometer

Other environmental factors can be investigated in the following ways:
Airflow: Set up a fan or hairdryer to blow air over the plant (this investigation can be
extended by putting the fan at different distances from the plant or at different fan-
speed settings)
Humidity: Spray water in a plastic bag and enclose the plant within the bag
Temperature: Change the temperature of room (e.g. cold room or warm room)
Results
As light intensity increases, the rate of transpiration increases

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This is shown by the bubble moving a greater distance in the 30 minute time period when YOUR NOTES
the lamp was placed closer to the leaf 
Transpiration rate increases with light intensity because more stomata tend to be open in
bright light in order to maximise photosynthesis
The more stomata that are open, the more water can be lost by evaporation and diffusion
through the stomatal pores
Limitations
The potometer equipment has a leak
Solution: Ensure that all equipment fits together rightly around the rubber bungs and
assemble underwater to help produce a good seal
The plant cutting has a blockage
Solution: Cut the stem underwater and assemble equipment underwater to minimise
opportunities for air bubbles to enter the xylem
The potometer has shown no change during the experiment
Solution: Use the plant cuttings as soon as they have been cut, as transpiration rates
may slow down when the cuttings are no longer fresh
Applying CORMS to practical work
When working with practical investigations, remember to consider your CORMS evaluation

CORMS evaluation
In this investigation, there are several different variations of the method depending on
which environmental factor you are testing. However, if testing the effect of light intensity,
your evaluation should look something like this:
Change - We will change the intensity of the light

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Organisms - The plants used in each repeat should be the same species, size, age, YOUR NOTES
number of leaves 
Repeat - We will repeat the investigation several times to ensure our results are reliable
Measurement 1 - We will measure the distance travelled by the bubble
Measurement 2 - ...in 30 minutes (calculate the rate of transpiration)
Same - We will control the temperature, wind speed and humidity of the environment

 Exam Tip
Remember that calculating the 'rate of transpiration' provides both M1 and M2 in the
CORMS evaluation as the rate is calculated based on a distance (M1) and time
period (M2)

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6.3.3 Translocation YOUR NOTES


Translocation
The soluble products of photosynthesis are sugars (mainly sucrose) and amino acids
These are transported around the plant in the phloem tubes which are made of living cells
(as opposed to xylem vessels which are made of dead cells)
The cells are joined end to end and contain holes in the end cell walls (called sieve plates)
which allow easy flow of substances from one cell to the next
The transport of sucrose and amino acids in the phloem, from regions of production to
regions of storage or use, is called translocation
Translocation is an active process that requires energy
Transport in the phloem goes in many different directions depending on the stage of
development of the plant or the time of year; however, dissolved food is always
transported from source (where it’s made) to sink (where it’s stored or used):
During winter, when many plants have no leaves, the phloem tubes may transport
dissolved sucrose and amino acids from the storage organs to other parts of the plant
so that respiration can continue
During a growth period (eg during the spring), the storage organs (eg roots) would be
the source and the many growing areas of the plant would be the sinks
After the plant has grown (usually during the summer), the leaves are
photosynthesizing and producing large quantities of sugars; so they become the
source and the roots become the sinks – storing sucrose as starch until it is needed
again

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YOUR NOTES


Translocation through the phloem

Comparison of Transport in the Xylem and Phloem Table

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6.4 Plant Hormones YOUR NOTES


6.4.1 Plant Hormones & Growth

Plant Hormones & Growth

Plants need to be able to grow in response to certain stimuli
For example, plants need to be able to grow in response to light, to ensure their leaves
can absorb light for photosynthesis
They also need to be able to grow in response to gravity, to ensure that shoots grow
upwards and roots grow downwards
The directional growth responses made by plants in response to light and gravity are
known as tropisms
A response to light is a phototropism and a response to gravity is a geotropism (or
gravitropism)
If the growth is towards the stimulus, the tropism is positive and if the growth is away from
the stimulus, the tropism is negative
As shoots grow upwards, away from gravity and towards light (so that leaves are able
to absorb sunlight), shoots show a positive phototropic response and a negative
geotropic response
As roots grow downwards into the soil, away from light and towards gravity (in order
to anchor the plant and absorb water and minerals from the soil), roots show a
negative phototropic response and a positive geotropic response
Geotropism and Phototropism Table

Auxins
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Plants produce plant growth regulators (similar to hormones in animals) called auxins to YOUR NOTES
coordinate and control directional growth responses such as phototropisms and 
geotropisms
Auxins are produced in the tips of the shoots and the roots; they diffuse to the cells below
the tips and have the following effects:
In the shoots, auxins promote cell elongation (growth); more auxin = more cell
elongation = more growth
In the roots, auxins inhibit cell elongation (growth); less auxin = less cell elongation =
less growth
The distribution of auxin in the shoots is affected by light and gravity, whereas the
distribution in the roots is primarily affected by gravity alone
If a shoot or root is placed on its side, auxins will accumulate along the lower side as a
result of gravity; so the uppermost side has a lower auxin concentration
In the shoots, the lower side grows faster than upper side (more auxin = more cell
elongation), so the shoot grows upwards
In the roots, the lower side grows slower than the upper side (as auxin inhibits cell
elongation and growth in roots), so the root grows downwards
Unequal distributions of auxin cause unequal growth rates in plant roots and shoots

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YOUR NOTES


The geotropism response in roots and shoots

If light shines on a growing shoot from all directions, auxin is distributed evenly throughout
the shoot and the cells in the shoot grow at the same rate - this is what normally happens
with plants growing outside
When light shines on the shoot predominantly from one side, the auxin produced in the
shoot tip concentrates on the shaded side of the shoot, making the cells on that side
elongate and grow faster than the cells on the sunny side
This unequal growth on either side of the shoot causes the shoot to bend and grow in the
direction of the light

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YOUR NOTES


Positive phototropism in plant shoots is a result of auxin accumulating on the shaded side of
a shoot

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6.4.2 Using Plant Hormones Commercially YOUR NOTES


Using Plant Hormones Commercially
Plant hormones can be extracted or artificially made and used by gardeners and farmers in
horticulture and agriculture to usefully control plant growth to obtain larger yields
For example, the use of auxins, ethene and gibberellins commercially has been very
beneficial is helping producing food and plants for decoration
However the everyday use of hormones as weed killers can have a negative effect on
biodiversity; as the growth of unwanted but natural plants such as weeds is inhibited
Many different species of plants are classed as weeds commercially, but to other
organisms they are a food source and potential habitat, so destroying them can have
negative effects on other organisms in the ecosystem
Auxins
Auxins can be used as selective weed killers; negatively affecting the growth of broad-
leaved plants which are weeds in comparison to the narrow-leaved grasses and cereals
grown as crops for food production (which are desired)
The growth of weeds is controlled by farmers who don’t want their yields to be smaller as a
result of competition between crops and weeds for space and nutrients from the soil
Selective weedkillers disrupt the growth of weeds only, causing them to die
However once applied to a crop their spread cannot be controlled, and they could
affect other plant species negatively
If a gardener or farmer wants to easily and cheaply produce lots of clones of a desirable
plant, then they can take cuttings of the plant and dip the tips in auxins which are sold as
‘rooting powders’ as they encourage the rapid development of roots
The same principle as above can be used to clone plants in the lab; auxins in this way are
used to promote growth in tissue culture where scrapings of cells can be taken from a
desirable plant and used to produce clones in a petri dish that are then planted and allowed
to grow in soil
Ethene
Ethene is used in the food industry to control ripening of fruit during storage and transport
It is far more effective to transport unripe fruit, as ripe fruit is softer and therefore more easily
damaged and spoiled
The production of ethene can be inhibited to delay ripening of fruits in storage; this can
either be achieved directly by adding chemicals that prevent ethene from being produced,
or by reacting ethene in the air around fruit with substances that can remove it
When ripening needs to be encouraged (eg. when fruit is in the supermarket), artificially
produced ethene gas can be released to speed up the process
Gibberellins
Gibberellins can be used to:
End seed dormancy - a high concentration of gibberellin, promotes seed germination.
Gibberellin levels naturally rise after a period of dormancy (exposure to cold and dry
conditions) - usually, dormancy ends with an intake of water into the seed and warmer
weather
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Promote flowering - regardless of the weather conditions the plant is in YOUR NOTES
Increase fruit size - higher levels of gibberellin promote the development and growth 
of fruit
Produce seedless fruit - normally, fruit with seeds in the middle only grows on
flowering plants that have been pollinated. If gibberellins are applied to the
unpollinated flowers of some plants, the fruit grows but no seeds develop within it

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