Instruments (15 marks)

CRO was invented in 1895 by German physicist Karl Ferdinand Braun. It is an electronic
equipment that provides visual images of varying electrical quantities.

Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) :-

A CRT is the heart of CRO. The electron gun assembly produces a narrow and
sharply focused beam of electron which travels with a very high velocity towards the
fluorescent screen. On its way the beam passes through two pairs of deflection plates. On
striking the screen, the beam produces a small light on the screen.
Main parts of Cathode Ray Tube are :-
1) Electron gun assembly
2) Deflection plate assembly
3) Fluorescent screen
4) Glass envelope and base of the tube.

Vertical
Deflection Aquadog
Heating Pre-accelerating Plates coating
Filament Anode Beam

Pins

Base
Cathode Grid Focusing Accelerating Horizontal
Anode Anode Deflection
Plates
Phosphorous
Screen
Electron Gun Assembly:-
Electrons are emitted from an indirectly heated cathode. The cathode is surrounded
by a control grid. The electrons that pass through small hole in grid make up beam current.
The electron are then accelerated by high positive potential applied to two accelerating
anodes. These anodes are separated by a focusing anode which provide a narrow and sharp
electron beam. The beam then travel through deflection plate assembly.
Deflection Plate Assembly :-
If voltages are applied to the deflection plates, the electron beam can be deflected
in horizontal direction by horizontal deflection plates or in vertical direction by vertical
deflection plates. Mostly electrostatic deflection is used in CRT.
Fluorescent screen :-
When electron beam strikes the screen of the CRT, a spot of light is produced. On
the inner surface of screen, phosphor coating is present. The secondary electrons are
collected by a conductive coating called as Aquadog which is electrically connected to the
second anode.
Electrostatic Focussing System of a CRT :-
The Electrostatic Focussing System of CRT consists of pre-accelerating anode,
focusing anode and accelerating anode. These anodes are cylindrical in form, with small
openings located in the center of each cylinder, along the axis of the tube. The electron
coming out of the control grid are accelerated by the high voltage applied to the accelerating
anode. The electron have a tendency to diverge from each other. Therefore the beam is
focused to form a sharp image on the screen by the focusing anode.

The focusing anode is connected to a lower positive potential than the other two
anodes. Because of difference in potential, the equipotential surfaces between focusing and
accelerating anodes form a shape like a convex lens. When the electron beam passes through
this region, the electron experience a force in a direction normal to the equipotential surfaces.
Therefore the beam is converged into a sharp point on the screen.
The focal length of the electrostatic lens can be changed by changing the voltage
on the focusing anode by using front panel control Focus.

Deflection System of a CRT :-

Types of deflection system used in CRT :-
1) Electrostatic Deflection 2) Magnetic Deflection

1) Electrostatic Deflection System :-

Two deflection plates are maintained at different potential. In fig. the line of force
between them are shown. When an electron beam enters the electric field, it gets deflected
towards positive plate and the path becomes parabolic. The beam emerges out in a straight
line and travels towards point P’ on the screen.
 In a CRT, two pairs of deflection plates are used. Input to be displayed is applied
to vertical deflection plates. Generally a sawtooth voltage is applied to horizontal deflection
plates. The final change in direction of electron beam depends on combined effect of both.

Application :-
The electrostatic deflection system is used in CRT of CRO and ECG monitors

Deflection sensitivity (S) :- It is defined as the deflection on the screen (in meter) per volt of
deflection voltage. Unit : m/volts
S = D/Ed where D = Deflection on screen (m) Ed = Deflection Voltage (volts)

2) Magnetic Deflection System :-

In magnetic deflection system a set of current carrying coils are mounted on
the neck of the CRT as shown in fig. The amount of deflection depends on ampere turns of
the coil. Two pairs of deflection coils are used. First pair is for vertical deflection and second
pair for horizontal deflection.

Application :-
The magnetic deflection system is more often used in T.V. picture tubes, radar displays and
video display unit of computer.
 Block dia. Of CRO

Volts/div.
Input
Vertical Vertical Delay
Y attenuator amplifier Line
Signal

CRT
High
Voltage
Power Supply

To CRT

Low
Blanking
Voltage
To other circuit
ckt.

Trigger Time Base Horizontal

Generator Amplifier

Ext. ( X-input )
Time/div.

The block dia. Of CRO is shown in fig. It consist of following blocks :-

1) Cathode ray tube
2) Vertical amplifier
3) Delay line
4) Trigger circuit
5) Time base generator
6) Horizontal amplifier
7) Blanking circuit
8) Power supply
The function of each block can be explained as follows :-
1) CRT :-
It is heart of CRO. In CRT electron beam is produced by electron gun. These electrons are
accelerated and focused by means of accelerating and focusing anodes. Using X and Y
deflection plate, the electron beam can be deflected along vertical or horizontal line. When
electron beam strikes to the screen we get a spot of light.
2) Vertical amplifier :-
The signal which is to be observed on the screen of CRO is applied to the deflection plate
through vertical amplifier. If the signal is very small then it cannot deflect the spot on the
screen. The vertical amplifier thus amplifies the signal so that spot can be deflected.
On the other hand, if the applied signal is very high then the deflection of spot cannot be
observed on the screen. In such case the vertical amplifier has attenuator circuit which
reduces signal to low level so that spot will be on display area of the screen.
3) Delay Line :-
In the block dia. We observed that the signal reaching to the Y deflection plate will have to
pass through only one block (vertical amp.) in the absence of delay line. While signal reaching
to the X deflection plate will have to pass through three blocks. Hence signal will reach to Y
plate earlier and this is undesirable. Therefore Delay line produces time delay 8- nanoseconds,
so that both X and Y plate receives their signal simultaneously.
4) Trigger circuit :-
A sample of the input waveform is fed to a trigger circuit which produces a trigger pulse at
some selected point on the input waveform. This trigger pulse is used to start the time base
generator which then starts the horizontal sweep of CRT spot from left hand side of the
screen.
5) Time Base Generator :-
This produces a saw tooth waveform by using UJT, hat is used as horizontal deflection voltage
of CRT. The rate of rise of positive going part of saw tooth waveform is controlled by Time/div.
knob. The saw tooth voltage is fed to the horizontal amplifier if the switch is in internal
position. If the switch in in EXT. position, an external horizontal input can be applied to the
horizontal amplifier.
6) Horizontal Amplifier :-
The saw tooth voltage produced by the time base circuit is amplified by the horizontal
amplifier before it is applied to horizontal deflection plates. As it includes a phase invertor,
two outputs voltage are produced, positive and negative going saw tooth voltage. These
voltages are given to the right hand and left hand horizontal deflection plates so that electron
beam will be move along X – axis.
7) Blanking Circuit :-
The blanking circuit is necessary to eliminate the retrace line that would occur when spot on
CRT moves from right to left side. This retrace can cause confusion if it is not eliminated. The
blanking voltage is produced by sweep generator. Hence a high negative voltage is applied to
the control grid during retrace period.
8) Power Supply :-
CRO requires two types of power supply i.e. high voltage and low voltage supply. The high
voltage supply is require to operate CRT and low voltage supply is require to other circuit of
the CRO.

How CRO can be used to display the waveform

In order to see waveform on CRO, we need to couple input ac voltage to Y-input of CRO. This
voltage is further coupled to vertical deflection plates of CRO. Internally, in CRO we have a
time base generator which generates sawtooth voltage which is coupled to horizontal
deflection plates. This voltage increases with time hence it achieve a constant motion of
electron from left to right. At the end of pulse, electron spot moves fatly from right to left and
this motion can be seen on CRT.
When electron spot moves from left to right, its vertical deflection is done as per applied
voltage at Y-input. In one second many no. of times electron perform such motion and hence
we observe a continuous waveform on the screen of CRO
APPLICATIONS OF CRO :-
1) CRO is extensively used for trouble shooting
2) Examination of waveform
3) Voltage measurement
4) Current measurement
5) Measurement of time interval
6) Frequency measurement
7) Modulation index measurement
8) Pulse measurement
9) Radio applications
10) Scientific applications
11) Engineering applications

Front panel control of CRO

Intensity Power
Focus
0.2 V Variable
20 MHZ oscilloscope cal
Y amp
ms
mv µs
µV S
V Time/div X5
V/div Trigger

Level Ext
ac
dc Y-input XIN
gnd Trace
CT X-input CT

The control and their functions are as mentioned below :-

1) Power :- This is used to make CRO ON.
2) Intensity :- This control is used to adjust brightness of the display.
3) Focus :- This control is used to adjust sharpness of the display.
4) Time/div :- This control is used to change time per division. This is achieved by changing C
in time base generator.
5) Variable :- This varies calibration. It actually changes resistance in time base generator.
6) Vertical position :- This control is used to change vertical position of the display.
7) Horizontal position :- This control is used to change horizontal position of the display.
8) Volt/div :- This control changes voltage of waveform per division. This control is used in
measurement of amplitude of waveform.
9) Level :- This control is used to adjust level. It actually selects trigger point. By adjusting this,
we can remove interference of waveform.
10) AC/DC :- This selects trigger signal coupling. For AC, capacitor is connected in series with
input.
11) GND :- This grounds amplifier input but input signal is open circuited.
12) Y – input :- This is vertical input. Normally, the waveform which is to be observed on
screen is connected to y – input. This is BNC input.
13) X – input :- This is horizontal input. In some applications, we make use of this input. This
is BNC input.
14) +/- :- Select trigger point on positive or negative slope of the displayed waveform.
15) Ext./Int. :- In external mode, triggering from any other external source is fed. In internal
mode, trigger is internally fed.
16) XIN/Sweep :- When pressed XIN operates, when released Sweep operates.
17) Trace :- Screw driver control to adjust horizontal tilt of the trace.
18) CT :- This control is used to trace channel.
19) 0.2 V :- This is 0.2V VPP 1 KHz square wave calibrated signal.
 Time Base Generator or UJT Sawtooth Generator
Time base voltage :-
The voltage which increases linearly with time from minimum value to maximum
value and quickly false to minimum value and again rises is known as time base voltage or
saw tooth voltage. This is also called time base because the deflection spot is proportional to
time and it is along x – axis of co-ordinate system. The time base voltage is generated by using
UJT. It uses switching property of Unijunction transistor (UJT).

Working :-
When power supply is ON then capacitor starts charging through resistor R. Thus
voltage across capacitor starts to increase. The voltage across capacitor is the emitter voltage
of UJT therefore emitter voltage also increases. When the emitter voltage reaches to the peak
voltage Vp of the UJT (firing voltage), the E-B, diode become forward biased and the UJT
triggers ON i.e. starts conducting.
As Vp = ɳ VBB + 0.7 where ɳ (eta) = RB1 / RB1 + RB2 = Intrinsic Stand off ratio
This provide a low resistance path and capacitor discharges quickly. As a result of
this emitter voltage become less than firing voltage Vp and UJT becomes Off. Now capacitor
again starts charging through resistance R. This charging and discharging of capacitor
produces Sawtooth voltage as shown in fig. The frequency of oscillation can be varied by
changing R & C on CRT.
This sawtooth voltage is require to set time along x-axis in CRO. If sweep voltage is
not applied, the electron beam can move only vertically. So sweep voltage is required in CRO.
 Measurements by CRO
1) DC voltage measurement :-
CRO can be used to measure the unknown DC voltage and following step are used.
Y

X 2 Div

Steps :-
1) CRO is switched on & horizontal line is obtained on screen.
2) The unknown DC voltage is given to Y input.
3) Due to unknown DC voltage horizontal line get shifted. Count no. of div. on Y – axis. Let it
is 2 div. as shown in fig.
4) Note the position of volts/div. knob. Let it is 4 V/div. Then

Unknown DC voltage = no. of div. on Y – axis X V/div.

= 2 div. X 4 V/div.
= 8 volts.

2) AC voltage measurement :-
CRO can be used to measure the unknown AC voltage and following step are used.
Y

X 2 Div

Steps :-
1) The unknown AC voltage is given to Y input of CRO & waveform is displayed on screen.
2) Count no. of div. on Y – axis for peak value of AC voltage. Let it is 2 div. as shown in fig.
3) Note the position of volts/div. knob. Let it is 4 V/div.
Then peak value of Ac voltage is given by
Vpeak = no. of div. on Y – axis X V/div.
= 2 div. X 4 V/div.
= 8 volts.
As Ac voltage is expressed in terms of its rms value and it is given by
Vrms = Vpeak / √2 = Vpeak x 0.707
Unknown AC voltage (Vrms) = 8 x 0.707 = 5.656 volts.
3) Frequency measurement :-
CRO can be used to measure the frequency of AC voltage with the help of following steps.
Y

6 Div

Steps :-
1) The AC voltage whose frequency is to be measure is given to Y input of CRO & waveform
is displayed on screen.
2) Count no. of division for one cycle on X – axis. Let it is 6 div. as shown in fig.
3) Note the position of time/div. knob. Let it is 5 ms/div.
Then period of AC voltage is given by
T = no. of div. on X – axis X time/div.
= 6 div. X 5 ms/div.
= 30 ms
Unknown frequency of AC voltage will be = F = 1 / T = 1 / 30 ms = 103 / 30 = 33.33 Hz

4) Frequency measurement by Lissajous Method:-

Y

In this method the unknown frequency signal is applied to vertical (Y) plate.
A known frequency signal is given to horizontal (X) plates of CRO. It is found that some
lissajous pattern O, OO, OOO, will be present on the screen of CRO. To measure the unknown
frequency, the pattern is adjusted so that it will touch to the x-axis and y-axis as shown in fig.
Nx = no. cuts to x – axis Fx = known frequency
Ny = no. cuts to y – axis Fy = unknown frequency
Then
Fy = Nx
Fx Ny
In fig. Nx = 3 and Ny = 1
Fy = 3
Fx 1
Unknown frequency = Fy = 3 x known frequency (Fx)
In this way by using lissajous pattern the unknown frequency can be calculated.
5) Phase measurement :-

B
A
Y1 Y2

The phase difference between two AC voltages can be measure by using

CRO. In this one signal is given to the x – input and another signal is given to the y – input.
Using knob on front panel an ellipse is obtained on the screen as shown in fig. Count no. of
division for Y1 and Y2.
Then phase difference is given by.
Sin θ = Y1
Y2
Let Y1 = 2 div. and Y2 = 4 div.
Sin θ = 2 = 1
4 2
Sin θ = Sin – 1 ( 1 )
2
Sin θ = 300
In this way phase difference can be measured by using CRO.
 Function or Signal Generator
The instrument which generates electrical signal in the form of sine wave or
square wave and triangular wave is known as function or signal generator. It is used in testing
an amplifier, counters etc. The block dia. Of function generator is shown in fig it uses square
wave as primary waveform and then respective circuit generates remaining waveforms.

Block dia. Of function generator

Integrator
circuit

S1 1
Square S1 Amplifier S1

Wave
generator
2
Amplifier S1

S2
Square to Sine
Frequency
wave
control
convertor

Working :- The block dia. Of function generator is consist mainly three blocks.

1) Primary waveform generator (Square wave generator)

2) An integrator
3) Square to sine wave convertor

1) Square wave generator :-

Like IC 555 astable multivibrator or op. amp. IC 741 may be used to generate basic
waveform as square wave. In astable multivibrator square wave generator frequency can be
controlled by changing the value of Resistor and Capacitor. The output of square wave
generator is given to two circuits i.e. integrator and square to sine wave convertor.
2) An integrator :-
This circuit generates a triangular waveform by integrating square wave. A RC
integrator by using Op. amp. Can be used.
3) Square to sine wave convertor :-
This circuit converts square wave into sine wave without changing its frequency.
Two waveforms can be obtained simultaneously by using two switches S1 & S2 so that any
two signal can be coupled to the output amplifiers.
 Digital Multimeter (DMM)

Advantages of DMM over analog meters :-

1) More accurate, while reading the display.

2) Maximum accuracy due to minimum loading effect.
3) Small size and easy operation.
4) Can be used to measure AC/DC voltage, AC/DC current, resistance etc.
5) Low cast and fast measurement by using rotary switch.
6) Audio visual indication for continuity and component testing.
7) Automatic polarity indication.
8) Automatic zero setting.
9) Eliminates parallax error.
10) It reduces interpolation errors.
11) It has sensitivity of 20 kΩ/V which is fairy high.
12) Measurement of quantities with different range can be possible.

Block dia. Of DMM

DC Voltage DC
voltage
attenuato
r

Rectifier
&
AC Voltage attenuator
Counter
Test Probes ADC
circuit
DC Current Current to
voltage
convertor

Ohm Current to
voltage Display
convertor

The instrument which measure electrical quantities such as AC voltage, DC

voltage and displays the measurement in the form of numerals is known as Digital
Mutlimeter. DMM is basically a digital voltmeter (DVM).
Basic Principle :- DMM just converts each and every quantity into DC voltage in analog form
and by using ADC an input analog quantity converted into digital signal. The digital signal then
displays in the form of digital display by using counter.
Working :-
The block dia. Of DMM is shown in fig. It has the following main blocks.
1) AC/DC Attenuator 4) AC to DC voltage convertor
2) Current to DC voltage convertor 5) Analog to Digital convertor (ADC)
3) Resistance to DC voltage convertor 6) Electronic Counter with digital display.

1) DC Attenuator :-
Dc attenuator is a potential divider made up of resistance divider. When DC voltage
is applied across its input probes then it is selected by an input attenuator.
2) Analog to Digital Convertor (ADC) :-
There are many methods to convert analog to digital form. The most commonly used
method in DMM is Ramp voltage which increases linearly from zero to predetermined level
in predetermined time. DMM measures the time taken by Ramp voltage to change zero volt
to predetermined level. This time interval is measured by electronic counter.
Thus the output of ADC is just voltage to time conversion and the time is made
proportional to its input voltage.
3) Electronic Counter and display unit :-
In DMM after converting input quantity into digital signal with the help of ADC, it is
applied to counter. Electronic counter has 7-segment display units. Each display is indicating
no. from 0 to 9. It has several displays with separate decoder and separate decade counter.
4) AC to DC voltage convertor :-
When the function switch is selected to AC voltage position, internally it switches a
rectifier circuit to convert AC voltage into DC voltage. It has attenuator similar to DC
attenuator to provide different voltage range.
5) Current to voltage convertor :-
When DMM selects current measurement it passes unknown current through a
known shunt resistance and proportional voltage is produced so that voltage is measured by
ADC and counter circuit.
6) Resistance to voltage convertor :-
Resistance is measured by passing a known current from a constant current source
through an unknown resistance. The voltage drop so developed across this resistance is
applied to the ADC, thereby producing an indication of the value of unknown resistance
connected at test probe.

END