UNIVERSITY OF ELDORET

SCHOOL OF HUMAN RESOURCE

DEVELOPMENT

DEPARTMENT OF COMMUNICATION
STUDIES

COURSE CODE: SHUM 321

COURSE TITLE: RESEARCH METHODS AND

ANALYSIS
Table of Contents
Table of Contents ....................................................................................................................................... ii
Course outline .......................................................................................................................................... vii
1. Introduction to research .............................................................................................................. vii
2. The Research process: .................................................................................................................. vii
3. Research Methodology ................................................................................................................ vii
4. Research report ............................................................................................................................. vii
5. Chapter Four: Data Analysis and Presentation of Results .................................................... viii
6. Chapter Five: Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations ............................................ viii
7. Work plan and budget ............................................................................................................... viii
8. Referencing .................................................................................................................................. viii
TOPIC 1: INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH ........................................................................................ 1
1.1 Meaning of research ....................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 The nature of research .................................................................................................................... 1
1.3 Objectives of Research .................................................................................................................... 3
1.4 Motivation in Research ................................................................................................................... 3
1.5 Distinguishing characteristics of research ...................................................................................... 4
1.6 Significance of Research.................................................................................................................. 4
1.7 Types of research ............................................................................................................................ 5
1.7.1 Basic types of research ................................................................................................................ 5
1.7.2 Research Approaches................................................................................................................... 8
1.7.3 Problems encountered by researchers ........................................................................................ 9
1.7.4 Sources of knowledge ................................................................................................................. 11
TOPIC 2: THE RESEARCH PROCESS ................................................................................................. 13
2.1 Selecting a Research Topic ........................................................................................................ 13
2.2 A Research Proposal/Project proposal ................................................................................... 15
2.3 Background information ........................................................................................................... 18
2.4 Formulating the research problem .......................................................................................... 18
2.5 Purpose of the study .................................................................................................................. 22
2.6 Formulating objectives and research questions ..................................................................... 22
2.7 Literature Review ....................................................................................................................... 24
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TOPIC 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................. 25
3.1 Research Design ............................................................................................................................ 25
3.2 Population and Sample ................................................................................................................. 27
3.4 Research Instruments ................................................................................................................... 28
3.5 Data Collection .............................................................................................................................. 31
3.6 Execution of the Project ................................................................................................................ 33
3.7 Analysis of Data ............................................................................................................................. 33
3.8 Hypothesis-testing ........................................................................................................................ 34
3.9 Generalizations and Interpretation .............................................................................................. 35
3.10 Preparation of the report or the Thesis ...................................................................................... 35
TOPIC 4: THE RESEARCH REPORT .................................................................................................... 36
4.1 Qualities of a good research report .............................................................................................. 36
4.1 Sections of a research report ........................................................................................................ 38
TOPIC 5 CHAPTER 4: (DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS, AND INTERPRETATION)..... 44
TOPIC 6: CHAPTER 5: (DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION, AND RECOMMENDATIONS) .......... 44
6.2 Ethical issues in research .............................................................................................................. 46
6.3 The Importance of Research Ethics .............................................................................................. 46
6.4 Code of ethics................................................................................................................................ 46
TOPIC 7: WORK PLAN AND BUDGET ............................................................................................. 52
7.1 Work Plan ...................................................................................................................................... 52
7.2 Budget ........................................................................................................................................... 52
TOPIC 8: REFERENCING STYLES ...................................................................................................... 53
8.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 53
8.2 The APA Referencing Style ............................................................................................................ 54
8.2.1 In-text referencing ..................................................................................................................... 54
8.2.2 Reference List............................................................................................................................. 56
8.2.3 Sample reference list .................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

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Course code: SHUM 321 Course Title: Research methods & Analysis

Credit hours: 3 Number of hours: 39

Purpose of the course

This course is intended to help the student to be able to prepare a research proposal,
conduct and submit a comprehensive research project report in their area of
specialization.

Course description
Introduction, definition of terms and concepts; population, sample, sampling, subject,
variables, objectives, hypothesis, problem statement, dedication, declaration,
acknowledgement, abstract, table of contents; Purpose of research; Nature of research;
Types of Research: Historical Research, Descriptive research, Correlation Research,
Experimental Research. Research Process: Problem Statement, Characteristics of
Research Problem, Research objectives and research questions, hypothesis/predictive
statement. Literature review: purpose of literature review, steps in literature review.
Research Methodology: Research Design, Population and Sample; Sampling
Procedures, Sampling Methods. Research Instruments; questionnaires, interviews,
observations; Data Collection, presentation, analysis and interpretation. Overview of
qualitative and quantitative research. Discussion of Findings, Conclusion and
Recommendation, research report format.

Course objectives

There are objectives to be achieved in unit of the course. You should read them before
studying each unit. It is expected that by the time you have finished studying this
course, you should be able to:

 identify nature of research and research process

 differentiate main types or research: survey, experimental, historical, &
descriptive
 identify data collection tools for different research designs
 identify the quality of research and their potential areas
 formulate research problem/questions in areas of interest

iv
  develop skills and knowledge on how to undertake alternative review
 improve skills and practical application in research concept
 write a research proposal in the area of specialization.

Learning outcomes
At the end of this course, the student should be able to:
 appreciate the importance of research
 identity the main types of research and understand the research process
 have basic understanding of data collection and data analysis procedures
 Interpret research findings to inform decision making
 identify potential research topics in the area of specialization
 write a research proposal.

Teaching methods learning and

Lectures, group discussions, group presentations, panel discussions, seminars and

assignments.

Instructional Materials and Equipment

BigBlueButton web conferencing platform, videos, voice recordings, phones, LMS,

smartphone, whiteboard, lecture notes, smart board, laptop and LCD

Course Assessment

Continuous Assessment Tests (sit in) 20%, assignments/presentation 10% final

examination 70%.

Recommended reading for students

Creswell, J. W. Research design: Qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods approaches. 4th
Ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2014.

Donald et. al. (2001) Business Research Methods (7th Ed.) New York: McGraw hill

Kothari, C.R. (2004) Research Methodology. New Delhi: New Age

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TRU Library. APA Citation Style - Quick Guide. 6th edition. 2011. Type: Online Guide

Saunders et. Al. (2000) Research Methods for Business Studies. (2nd Edition). New Jersey:
Prentice-Hall

Baxter, L.A & Babbie, E. (2003). The Basics of Communication Research. Boston:
Wadsworth/Cengage Learning

Creswell, J. W. (2007). Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design: Choosing Among Five
Approaches (2nd Ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Dawson, C. (2002) Practical Research Methods: A user-friendly Guide to Mastering Research

Techniques and Projects .Oxford: How To Books Ltd.

Daymond, C & Holoway, I. (2011). Qualitative Research Methods in Public Relations and
Marketing Communications (second edition). New York: Routledge

Hart, C (2005). Doing Your M asters Dissertation: L Realising Your Potential as a Scientist.
New Delhi: Vistaar Publications

Kathuri J.N. & Pals D.A. (1993). Introduction to Research Methods and Statistics in
psychology. (2nd Ed.). Njoro: Educational Media Center, Egerton University

Borg, R.W. and M.D. Gall. 1989. Educational Research: An Introduction.

New York: Longman, Inc.

Chandran, Emil. 2004. Research Methods: A Quantitative Approach.

Nairobi: Daystar University.

Dornan, Edward A. and Charles W. Dawe. 1984. The Brief English Module.
Little: Brown and Company.

Orodho, J.A. 2004. Techniques of Writing Research Proposals and Reports in Education and
Social Sciences. Nairobi: Masola Publishers.

Peil, Margaret. 1995. Social Science Research Methods: A Module for

Africa. Nairobi: EAEP.

Strunk, William Jr. and E. B. White. 1972. The Elements of Style. New York: Macmillan

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Course outline

1. Introduction to research
a) Meaning of research
b) Objectives of research
c) Motivation in research
d) Significance of research
e) Distinguishing characteristics of research
f) Types of research
g) Research approaches
h) Problems encountered by researchers

2. The Research process:

a) Selecting a research topic
b) Formulating the research problem
c) Defining concepts and developing conceptual framework
d) Literature review
e) Selecting the research design
f) Selecting the data collection method
g) Selecting the survey method
h) Preparing data collection Instruments
i) Selecting data analysis tools
j) Report writing and dissemination of results
k) Summary, conclusions and recommendations

3. Research Methodology
a) Research design

b) Population and sample

c) Research instruments

d) Data collection

e) Execution of the project

f) Analysis of data

g) Ethical issues in research

4. Research report
a) Qualities of a good research report
b) Sections of a research report:

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 c) chapter 2- Literature review

d) chapter 3- Methodology

e) Chapter 4- Data analysis and presentation of results

f) Chapter 5- Summary, conclusions and recommendations

5. Chapter Four: Data Analysis and Presentation of Results

a. Analysis of the Response Rate
b. Qualitative analysis
c. Quantitative analysis
d. Overview

6. Chapter Five: Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations

a. Introduction

b. Summary

c. Discussion

d. Conclusions

e. Recommendations

7. Work plan and budget

a. Work plan

b. Budget

8. Referencing
a. Referencing styles

b. APA referencing style

c. Reference list

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ix
TOPIC 1: INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH

1.1 Meaning of research

Research in common parlance refers to a search for knowledge. Once can also define
research as a scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific
topic. In fact, research is an art of scientific investigation.

There are many ways of defining “research”:

 To research is to carry out a diligent inquiry or a critical examination of a given
phenomena
 Research also involves a critical analysis of existing conclusions or theories with
regard to newly discovered facts
 Research is a systematic, controlled, empirical, and critical investigation of
hypothetical prepositions about the presumed relations among natural
phenomena
 Research is the process of arriving at dependable solutions through a systematic
collection, analysis and interpretation of data
 Research is the careful and systematic inquiry into or examination of a field of
knowledge in order to establish facts and principles.

All definitions emphasize that research is a process, not an event. It must therefore be
carefully planned, implemented, disseminated, and consumed.

1.2 The nature of research

Research therefore is:

a) Systematic

It is based on some logical order or step. It has a well-defined methodology.

b) Empirical

This is because conditions and conclusions drawn are based on observed data or facts
rather than feelings.

c) Analytical
This means that conclusions drawn must be based on analyzed data.

d) Cumulative

This is because findings are related to existing knowledge to which it is added to build a
body of knowledge in the field.

e) Communicable

The findings must be made known to others.

f) Logical

It entails rational understanding of behavior. Research goes beyond the ‘common sense’
understanding, which is neither formally testable nor empirically verifiable.

g) Determines

It attempts to determine the cause and effect of an issue e.g. why a particular
phenomenon comes into being and what cause it.

h) General

It deals with observing the overall pattern of events. It is usually generalizes (especially
in social sciences) the results of a study to other subjects, groups, and conditions.

i) Specific

It specifies its methods of operation and analysis and adheres to these methods.

j) Inter-disciplinary

That is, it seeks to relate one subject to another.

k) Empirically verifiable

That is, it deals with facts that can be tested under controlled observation and from
which viable recommendation can be made.

l) Open to modification

This happens both in its theories as well as methodology. A researcher must therefore
keep updated with the latest theories and methods in light of current developments.

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 m) Applies the scientific methods in the study of problems

It attempts to obtain answers to meaningful questions about phenomena or events

through the application of scientific procedures.

1.3 Objectives of Research

There are various purposes of conducting research. These include:
 To discover new knowledge. This involves the discovery of new facts, their
correct interpretation and practical application.
 To describe a phenomenon. Accurate identification of any event involves
thorough description.
 To enable prediction. This is the ability to estimate phenomenon. We sometimes
use a set of variables to predict a given variable.
 To enable control. In scientific research control is concerned with the ability to
regulate the phenomenon under study. Many scientific experiments are designed
to achieve this objective.
 To enable explanation of phenomenon. Explanation involves accurate
observation and measurement of a given phenomenon.
 To enable theory development. Theory development involves formulating
concepts, laws and generalization about a given phenomenon.
 To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are
known as hypothesis-testing research studies).

1.4 Motivation in Research

What makes people to undertake research? This is a question of fundamental
importance. The possible motives for doing research may be either one or more of the
following:
1. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;
2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e., concern over
practical problems initiates research;
3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;
4. Desire to be of service to society;
5. Desire to get respectability.
However, this is not an exhaustive list of factors motivating people to undertake
research studies.

Many more factors such as directives of government, employment conditions, curiosity

about new things, desire to understand causal relationships, social thinking and
awakening, and the like may as well motivate (or at times compel) people to perform
research operations.

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1.5 Distinguishing characteristics of research
 Research is systematic
 Research is controlled
 Research is empirical. It deals with data, which is tested scientifically.
 Research is self-correcting. The results of research are open to public scrutiny.

1.6 Significance of Research

 The role of research in several fields of applied economics, whether related to business or
to the economy as a whole, has greatly increased in modern times. The increasingly
complex nature of business and government has focused attention on the use of
research in solving operational problems. Research, as an aid to economic policy,
has gained added importance, both for government and business.

 Research provides the basis for nearly all government policies in our economic system.
For instance, government’s budgets rest in part on an analysis of the needs and
desires of the people and on the availability of revenues to meet these needs.

Thus, in the context of government, research as a tool to economic policy has

three distinct phases of operation, viz.
(i) investigation of economic structure through continual compilation of facts;
(ii) diagnosis of events that are taking place and the analysis of the forces underlying
them;
(iii) The prognosis, i.e., the prediction of future developments.

 Research has its special significance in solving various operational and planning
problems of business and industry. Operations research and market research, along
with motivational research, are considered crucial and their results assist, in
more than one way, in taking business decisions.

 Research is equally important for social scientists in studying social relationships and in
seeking answers to various social problems. It provides the intellectual satisfaction of
knowing a few things just for the sake of knowledge and also has practical utility
for the social scientist to know for the sake of being able to do something better
or in a more efficient manner.

In addition to what has been stated above, the significance of research can also be
understood keeping in view the following points:

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 (a) To those students who are to write a master’s or Ph.D. thesis, research may mean
a careerism or a way to attain a high position in the social structure;

(b) To professionals in research methodology, research may mean a source of

livelihood;

(c) To philosophers and thinkers, research may mean the outlet for new ideas and
insights;

(d) To literary men and women, research may mean the development of new styles
and creative work;

(e) To analysts and intellectuals, research may mean the generalisations of new
theories.

Thus, research is the fountain of knowledge for the sake of knowledge and an
important source of providing guidelines for solving different business, governmental
and social problems. It is a sort of formal training which enables one to understand the
new developments in one’s field in a better way.

1.7 Types of research

1.7.1 Basic types of research

The basic types of research are as follows:
(i) Descriptive vs. Analytical

 Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different

kinds. The major purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of
affairs as it exists at present.
 In social science and business research we quite often use the term Ex post facto
research for descriptive research studies. The main characteristic of this method
is that the researcher has no control over the variables; he can only report what
has happened or what is happening.
 Most ex post facto research projects are used for descriptive studies in which the
researcher seeks to measure such items as, for example, frequency of shopping,
preferences of people, or similar data. Ex post facto studies also include attempts

5
 by researchers to discover causes even when they cannot control the variables.
The methods of research utilized in descriptive research are survey methods of
all kinds, including comparative and correlational methods.
 In analytical research, on the other hand, the researcher has to use facts or
information already available, and analyze these to make a critical evaluation of
the material.

(ii) Applied vs. Fundamental

 Research can either be applied (or action) research or fundamental (to basic or
pure) research.
 Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a
society or an industrial/business organisation, whereas fundamental research is
mainly concerned with generalisations and with the formulation of a theory.
 “Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake is termed ‘pure’ or ‘basic’ research.”
Research concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics
are examples of fundamental research.
 Similarly, research studies, concerning human behaviour carried on with a view
to make generalisations about human behaviour, are also examples of
fundamental research, but research aimed at certain conclusions (say, a solution)
facing a concrete social or business problem is an example of applied research.

 Research to identify social, economic or political trends that may affect a

particular institution or the copy research (research to find out whether certain
communications will be read and understood) or the marketing research or
evaluation research are examples of applied research.

 Thus, the central aim of applied research is to discover a solution for some
pressing practical problem, whereas basic research is directed towards finding
information that has a broad base of applications and thus, adds to the already
existing organized body of scientific knowledge.

(iii) Quantitative vs. Qualitative

Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. It is
applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity.

Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e.,
phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind. For instance, when we are
interested in investigating the reasons for human behaviour (i.e., why people think or
do certain things), we quite often talk of ‘Motivation Research’, an important type of
qualitative research. This type of research aims at discovering the underlying motives
and desires, using in depth interviews for the purpose. Other techniques of such
6
research are word association tests, sentence completion tests, story completion tests
and similar other projective techniques.

Attitude or opinion research i.e., research designed to find out how people feel or what
they think about a particular subject or institution is also qualitative research.
Qualitative research is especially important in the behavioural sciences where the aim is
to discover the underlying motives of human behaviour. Through such research we can
analyse the various factors which motivate people to behave in a particular manner or
which make people like or dislike a particular thing. It may be stated, however, that to
apply qualitative research in practice is relatively a difficult job and therefore, while
doing such research, one should seek guidance from experimental psychologists.

(iv) Conceptual vs. Empirical:

Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory. It is generally
used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to reinterpret existing
ones. On the other hand, empirical research relies on experience or observation alone,
often without due regard for system and theory. It is data-based research, coming up
with conclusions which are capable of being verified by observation or experiment.

We can also call it experimental type of research. In such a research it is necessary to get
at facts firsthand, at their source, and actively to go about doing certain things to
stimulate the production of desired information. In such a research, the researcher must
first provide himself with a working hypothesis or guess as to the probable results. He
then works to get enough facts (data) to prove or disprove his hypothesis. He then sets
up experimental designs which he thinks will manipulate the persons or the materials
concerned so as to bring forth the desired information. Such research is thus
characterised by the experimenter’s control over the variables under study and his
deliberate manipulation of one of them to study its effects.

Empirical research is appropriate when proof is sought that certain variables affect
other variables in some way. Evidence gathered through experiments or empirical
studies is today considered to be the most powerful support possible for a given
hypothesis.

(v) Some Other Types of Research:

All other types of research are variations of one or more of the above stated approaches,
based on either the purpose of research, or the time required to accomplish research, on
the environment in which research is done, or on the basis of some other similar factor.
From the point of view of time, we can think of research either as one-time research or
longitudinal research. In the former case the research is confined to a single time-
period, whereas in the latter case the research is carried on over several time-periods.

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Research can be field-setting research or laboratory research or simulation research,
depending upon the environment in which it is to be carried out.

Research can as well be understood as clinical or diagnostic research. Such research

follow case-study methods or in depth approaches to reach the basic causal relations.
Such studies usually go deep into the causes of things or events that interest us, using
very small samples and very deep probing data gathering devices. The research may be
exploratory or it may be formalized. The objective of exploratory research is the
development of hypotheses rather than their testing, whereas formalized research
studies are those with substantial structure and with specific hypotheses to be tested.

Historical research is that which utilizes historical sources like documents, remains, etc.
to study events or ideas of the past, including the philosophy of persons and groups at
any remote point of time.

Research can also be classified as conclusion-oriented and decision-oriented. While

doing conclusion oriented research, a researcher is free to pick up a problem, redesign
the enquiry as he proceeds and is prepared to conceptualize as he wishes.

Decision-oriented research is always for the need of a decision maker and the
researcher in this case is not free to embark upon research according to his own
inclination. Operations research is an example of decision oriented research since it is a
scientific method of providing executive departments with a quantitative basis for
decisions regarding operations under their control.

1.7.2 Research Approaches

The above description of the types of research brings to light the fact that there are two
basic approaches to research, viz., quantitative approach and the qualitative approach.

1. Quantitative approach involves the generation of data in quantitative form

which can be subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis in a formal and rigid
fashion. This approach can be further sub-classified into inferential, experimental
and simulation approaches to research.

 The purpose of inferential approach to research is to form a data base from

which to infer characteristics or relationships of population. This usually means
survey research where a sample of population is studied (questioned or
observed) to determine its characteristics, and it is then inferred that the
population has the same characteristics.

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  Experimental approach is characterised by much greater control over the
research environment and in this case some variables are manipulated to observe
their effect on other variables.
 Simulation approach involves the construction of an artificial environment
within which relevant information and data can be generated. This permits an
observation of the dynamic behaviour of a system (or its sub-system) under
controlled conditions. The term ‘simulation’ in the context of business and social
sciences applications refers to “the operation of a numerical model that
represents the structure of a dynamic process. Given the values of initial
conditions, parameters and exogenous variables, a simulation is run to represent
the behaviour of the process over time.” Simulation approach can also be useful
in building models for understanding future conditions.

2. Qualitative approach to research is concerned with subjective assessment of

attitudes, opinions and behaviour.
 Research in such a situation is a function of researcher’s insights and
impressions.
 Such an approach to research generates results either in non-quantitative form or
in the form which are not subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis. Generally,
the techniques of focus group interviews, projective techniques and depth
interviews are used.
3. Mixed-method research, i.e. research that includes qualitative and quantitative
elements, using both primary and secondary data, is becoming more common
because research studies are increasingly trans-disciplinary. That is to say they
cover fields across the sciences, humanities, history and the arts.

4. Non-empirical research refers to an approach that is grounded in theory as

opposed to using observation and experimentation to achieve the outcome. As
such, non-empirical research seeks solutions to problems using existing
knowledge as its source.
Summary of research classification

Generally research begins by exploring a new phenomenon with the help of an

exploratory study. Thereafter, a descriptive study is conducted to increase the
researchers’ knowledge of that phenomenon. Lastly, the researcher needs to explain the
phenomenon. An explanatory study is then an attempt to connect ideas to understand
cause and effect that helps researchers to explain what is going on.

1.7.3 Problems encountered by researchers

Researchers, particularly those engaged in empirical research, are facing several
problems.
Some of the important problems are as follows:
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1. The lack of a scientific training in the methodology of research is a great impediment for
researchers in our country. There is paucity of competent researchers. Many researchers
take a leap in the dark without knowing research methods. Most of the work, which
goes in the name of research is not methodologically sound. Research to many
researchers and even to their guides, is mostly a scissor and paste job without any
insight shed on the collated materials. The consequence is obvious, viz., the research
results, quite often, do not reflect the reality or realities. Thus, a systematic study of
research methodology is an urgent necessity. Before undertaking research projects,
researchers should be well equipped with all the methodological aspects. As such,
efforts should be made to provide short duration intensive courses for meeting this requirement.
2. There is insufficient interaction between the university research departments on one
side and business establishments, government departments and research institutions on
the other side. A great deal of primary data of non-confidential nature remain
untouched/untreated by the researchers for want of proper contacts. Efforts should be
made to develop satisfactory liaison among all concerned for better and realistic researches.
There is need for developing some mechanisms of a university—industry interaction
programme so that academics can get ideas from practitioners on what needs to be
researched and practitioners can apply the research done by the academics.
3. Most of the business units in our country do not have the confidence that the material
supplied by them to researchers will not be misused and as such they are often
reluctant in supplying the needed information to researchers. The concept of secrecy
seems to be sacrosanct to business organisations in the country so much so that it
proves an impermeable barrier to researchers. Thus, there is the need for generating the
confidence that the information/data obtained from a business unit will not be misused.
4. Research studies overlapping one another are undertaken quite often for want of adequate
information. This results in duplication and fritters away resources. This problem can be
solved by proper compilation and revision, at regular intervals, of a list of subjects on
which and the places where the research is going on. Due attention should be given
toward identification of research problems in various disciplines of applied science
which are of immediate concern to the industries.
5. There does not exist a code of conduct for researchers and inter-university and
interdepartmental rivalries are also quite common. Hence, there is need for developing
a code of conduct for researchers which, if adhered sincerely, can win over this
problem.
6. Many researchers in our country also face the difficulty of adequate and timely secretarial
assistance, including computerial assistance. This causes unnecessary delays in the
completion of research studies. All possible efforts be made in this direction so that
efficient secretarial assistance is made available to researchers and that too well in time.
University Grants Commission must play a dynamic role in solving this difficulty.
7. Library management and functioning is not satisfactory at many places and much of the
time and energy of researchers are spent in tracing out the books, journals, reports, etc.,
rather than in tracing out relevant material from them.

10
8. There is also the problem that many of our libraries are not able to get copies of old and new
Acts/Rules, reports and other government publications in time.
9. There is also the difficulty of timely availability of published data from various government
and other agencies doing this job in our country. Researcher also faces the problem on
account of the fact that the published data vary quite significantly because of
differences in coverage by the concerning agencies.
10. There may, at times, take place the problem of conceptualization and also problems
relating to the process of data collection and related things.

1.7.4 Sources of knowledge

Research is only one of several ways of "knowing." Different fields of knowledge have
different ways of knowing. For instance knowledge in social sciences is generated
differently from knowledge in history or mathematics.

The branch of philosophy that deals with this knowledge is called epistemology.
Epistemologists generally recognize at least four different sources of knowledge based
on perception, memory, consciousness, and reason:

(1) Intuitive knowledge takes forms such as belief, faith, intuition, or personal opinion.
It is based on feelings rather than hard, cold "facts."

(2) Authoritative knowledge is based on information received from people, books, or a

supreme being. Its strength depends on the legitimacy of these sources.

(3) Logical knowledge is arrived at by reasoning from a point, say," point A" (which is
generally accepted) to another point, say," point B" (which is the new knowledge).

(4) Empirical knowledge is based on demonstrable, objective facts (which are

determined through observation and/or experimentation). Research often makes use of
all four of these ways of knowing: intuitive (when coming up with an initial idea for
research), authoritative (when reviewing professional or reputable literature), logical
(when reasoning from findings to conclusions), and, empirical (when engaging in
procedures that lead to concise findings). Finding information is key in research of all
types. There are primary and secondary sources of knowledge or information. For
instance in the academic study of history, a primary source(also called original source
or evidence) is an artifact, a document, diary, manuscript, autobiography, a recording,
or other source of information that was created at the time under study. It serves as an
original source of information about the topic. Similar definitions are used in library
science, and other areas of scholarship, although different fields have somewhat
different definitions. In journalism, a primary source can be a person with direct
knowledge of a situation, or a document written by such a person.

11
 Primary sources are distinguished from secondary sources, which cite, comment on, or
build upon primary sources. Generally, accounts written after the fact with the benefit
(and possible distortions) of hindsight are secondary. A secondary source may also be a
primary source depending on how it is used. For example, a memoir would be
considered a primary source in research concerning its author or about his or her
friends characterized within it, but the same memoir would be a secondary source if it
were used to examine the culture in which its author lived. "Primary" and "secondary"
should be understood as relative terms, with sources categorized according to specific
historical contexts and what is being studied.

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TOPIC 2: THE RESEARCH PROCESS

The research process is the overall scheme of activities in which scientists engage in so
as to produce knowledge. It consists of the following main stages:

a) Topic selection

b) Problem statement

c) Defining objectives

d) Formulating hypothesis

e) Reviewing literature

f) Selecting a research method

g) Preparing a sample frame

h) Constructing research instruments

i) Pre-testing research instruments

j) Writing a research proposal

k) Data collection

l) Data presentation, analysis, and interpretation

m) Making generalizations, conclusions, and recommendations

2.1 Selecting a Research Topic

It is important to choose a topic, which can be studied within various constraints facing
the researcher. These include, time, finances, and ability of the researcher.

Whereas topics for research may be selected for the researcher e.g. by those in authority,
it is better for one to come up with his/her own topic. Academic research is usually left
to the individual scholars, whether students or members of staff. Each then chooses a
topic from an area that s/he is interested in and comfortable with. The process is as
follows:

13
1. Identify the Broad Area
The criteria for choosing a research area comprises of the following three
considerations.
(i) Need - ask yourself whether there is need for a study in the area. Who needs it and
why? The selection of a topic is governed by the need to address some problems or
questions or understand some given situations.
(iii) Interest or concern - What is the interest of the concerned college department,
industry, sector or institution? For instance the micro-finance sector may be interested
in determining the causes of the low level of reach by MFIs to enterprises that need
financial services.
(iii) Feasibility - The research chosen must be feasible. Is it possible and practical to
achieve the research easily and conveniently? The scope, time, financial and other
resources available affect the feasibility of a research.
2. Word the Topic
Once the researcher is satisfied with the broad area of study, he words the topic
appropriately.
The topic is stated in words that indicate the focus, problem. or issue of the research.
Chandran suggests the following guidelines for wording of the research topic:
 The topic should capture fully the focus or the issue of the research.
 It should have clear reference to the specific population or group of people or the
objects targeted for the research
 It should include the key or main variables of the research
 It should reveal the nature of the research (i.e. whether qualitative or
quantitative)
 It may include references to the time period of the issue or the research (e.g. in
the case of historical research the date of the case study is optional in a topic that
is current)
 It does not necessarily have to be a statement - it could be a phrase or a question
 The wording has to be precise.
Examples:
- Attitude of small-scale furniture makers in Nakuru towards management consultancy
services.
- Factors affecting growth of transport businesses owned by women in urban centers in
central province.
3. Build Preliminary Knowledge
The purpose of looking for preliminary knowledge is to enable the researcher to
ascertain whether or not there is really a research problem in the area (topic chosen). It
also helps the researcher to find out what is already known about the topic. Overall, it
saves the researcher time and other resources, which would otherwise be used in
pursuing a research that he/she is forced to discard midstream. Some of the resource of
the preliminary information include:

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-Studies that have already been conducted
- Recommendations made by previous studies (especially on areas requiring further
research)
- Journals
- Dissertations
- Reports and conference materials

Since research should contribute to knowledge, you should read any material critically.
Are there any flaws in what is already known? Is the research done properly or badly?
Could
Conditions have changed over time? Has the research been replicated? Are there
obvious gaps in information? Has the theory been tested adequately?

2.2 A Research Proposal/Project proposal

A research proposal is the written description of a project that has not yet been
undertaken. The proposal describes the nature of the project and sets forth the plan for
carrying it out. All the previous steps discussed in the research process from defining
the problem to pretesting the instruments are necessary components of the research
proposal. It should go further and mention how the data will be collected, analyzed and
interpreted.
The research proposal is a blue print or a plan for an intended study. Research proposal
preparation is essential in the development and pursuit of a research endeavor. The
quality of the final research project often depends on the quality of the research
proposal. Consequently, each student must develop a comprehensive research proposal
before registering for the research project

The research proposal for the project should consist of three major chapters or sections
including introduction, literature review and methodology. In addition to the three
major chapters, the research proposal should also provide an abstract, reference or
bibliography, implementation schedule and, implementation budget. The three major
chapters or sections (introduction, literature review, and methodology) of the research
proposal should correspond to the first three sections of the research project report in
terms quality and comprehensiveness. The only difference being that, the introduction
and methodology sections are written in present or future tense in the research proposal
and past tense in the research project report.

Importance of writing a Proposal

The importance of a proposal does not need to be over emphasized. Some of the
benefits include;

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 a) It provides the researcher with a systematic plan of the procedure to follow in his
work during the period of doing the research. It therefore helps the researcher to
avoid changes during the time of doing research.
b) A proposal should be written and clearly written from the word go. A poor
proposal may mean repeating certain steps or redoing the whole research
process. Such changes are both expensive and time consuming.
c) It provides clarifications and we'll thought out methods of research especially as
regards the kind of materials and tools required.
d) It guides the researcher in the kind of budget he/she will need and the
procedure to follow.
e) It can be used to solicit for funds for the research
f) It is a basis for evaluation to establish
i. The relevance of the research/ project
ii. Usefulness (significance) of research
iii. Appropriateness of the methods to be used even before the study
commences.

The Structure of a Proposal

A proposal begins with;
The top page- which consists of:
-The title of the research
-Name of the school- A project proposal submitted to department or school of business
in partial fulfillment of the requirements from the award of a degree in Bcom. Etc
- Name of institution
- Year in which you are submitting the work.
Declaration and approval page.
-Begin with the declaration.
-This is my original work and has not been presented for a degree in any University.
 Name
 Sign
 Date
 Approval
This degree project or [Link] project has been submitted for examination with my
approval as a university supervisor.
 Name
 Sign
 Date
Abstract
It is an executive summary of what is intended to be included in the work.
It includes all the major parts of a proposal. It contains;
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 a) Background to the study
b) Statement of the problem
c) Objectives of the study
d) Hypothesis
e) Significance/ importance/ rationale/ justification etc.
f) Conceptual framework.
Introduction
 The introduction section of the proposal should include:
 Background of the problem
 Statement of the problem
 Purpose of the study or general objective
 Research questions or specific objectives or hypothesis. The hypothesis should be
stated if the study involves experimental designs or statistical tests.
 Importance or justification or significance of the study
 Scope of the study
 Chapter Summary

Literature Review
The literature review section of the proposal should present a review of the literature
related to the problem and purpose. The literature review section should therefore be
organized or categorized according to the research questions or specific objectives in
order to ensure relevance to the research problem. It should be written using
appropriate writing style such as the
American Psychological Association (APA) style.

Research Methodology
The research methodology section of the proposal should provide explanation and
description of the methods and procedures used in conducting the study. This section
should include:
 Introduction
 Research design
 Population and sample
 Data collections methods (instrumentation)
 Research procedures
 Data analysis methods
 Chapter Summary

 These sections of the proposal will be dealt with in the subsequent sections.
We now move to the third step of the research process:

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2.3 Background information
In this section of the proposal, you will be expected to broadly introduce the topic that
you are investigating. This is where the global, regional and national overview of the
research topic is briefly discussed. By providing that information, you will be creating a
‘knowledge gap’ which then you expect to seal with the information, which you will
find after the completion of your research. So here you strive to propose and explain
how you think the information you intend to find can bridge that gap.

Background information can also be something that has made you get interested in the
topic and show that there is something that you can contribute towards that area of
discipline.

2.4 Formulating the research problem

There are two types of research problems, viz., those which relate to states of nature
and those which relate to relationships between variables. At the very outset the
researcher must single out the problem he wants to study, i.e., he must decide the
general area of interest or aspect of a subject-matter that he would like to inquire into.
Initially the problem may be stated in a broad general way and then the ambiguities, if
any, relating to the problem be resolved. Then, the feasibility of a particular solution has
to be considered before a working formulation of the problem can be set up. The
formulation of a general topic into a specific research problem, thus, constitutes the first
step in a scientific enquiry. Essentially two steps are involved in formulating the
research problem, viz., understanding the problem thoroughly, and rephrasing the
same into meaningful terms from an analytical point of view.

What is a research problem?

•It is the topic we would like to address, investigate, or study, whether descriptively or
experimentally.

•It is the focus or reason for engaging in our research.

•It is typically a topic, phenomenon, or challenge that we are interested in and with
which we are at least somewhat familiar applications

Problem Formulation
Problem formulation is the logical first step toward this goal. Inquiry starts only when
something is unsatisfactory, when traditional beliefs are inadequate or in question,
when the facts necessary, to resolve one’s uncertainties are not known, when the most
likely relevant hypotheses are not even imagined. What one has at the beginning of the
inquiry is merely the problem”.

18
The formulation of research problems also has an important social function: researchers
must justify the demands for attention and other scarce resources that research makes:
in conferring upon the scientist the right to claim that a question deserves the concerted
attention of others as well as himself, the social institution of science exacts the
obligation that he justify the claim.

Achieving significant research results is perhaps the most powerful justification for
such claims, but this type of justification can be offered only after the fact, and only in
the event that the research is successful. A compelling research problem, by contrast,
must marshal support in advance of research and, if it is sufficiently compelling, can
even sustain that support through the sometimes fruitless periods that researcher's
experience. However, despite research problems’ logical priority in inquiry, and their
importance as a priori justification, a problem formulation, as John Dewey stresses, is in
fact a “progressive” matter.

How is a research problem formed?

A researchable problem may be picked out of several identified problems by evaluating
the outlined problems against certain criteria, which are grouped into two: internal
criteria and external criteria.

Internal Criteria refer to those qualities and resources possessed by the researcher.
They consist of:

1. Researcher’s interest: The problem should interest the researcher and be a

challenge to him. Without interest and curiosity, he may not develop sustained
perseverance. Interest in a problem depends upon the researcher’s educational
background, experience, outlook and sensitivity.

2. Researcher’s own resource: In the case of a research to be done by a researcher

on his own, consideration of his own financial resource is pertinent. If the
research costs are beyond his means, he will not be able to complete the work,
unless he gets some external financial support. Time resource is more important
than finance. Research is a time-consuming process; hence time should be
planned well in advance and properly utilized.

3. Researcher’s competence: Mere interest in a research problem is inadequate

reason to go ahead to conduct research. The researcher must be competent
enough so as to adequately plan and carry out a study of the problem. He must
possess adequate knowledge of the subject matter, the relevant methodology and
the statistical procedures involved in data analysis.

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External Criteria
External criteria refer to criteria over which the researcher may have no direct control.

1. Research-ability of the problem: The problem should be researchable, i.e., amendable

for finding answers to the questions involved in it through the scientific method.

2. Novelty of the problem: The problem must have novelty. There is no use of wasting
one’s time and energy on a problem already studied thoroughly by others.

3. Importance and urgency: Problems requiring investigation are unlimited, but

available research efforts are very much limited.

4. Facilities: Research requires certain facilities such, as well-equipped library facility,

suitable and competent guidance, data analysis facility, etc. Hence the availability of the
facilities relevant to the problem must be considered. Problems for research, their
relative importance and significance should be considered.

5. Feasibility: A problem may be a new one and also important, but if research on it is
not feasible, it cannot be selected.

6. Usefulness and social relevance: Above all, the study of the problem should make a
significant contribution to the concerned body of knowledge or to the solution of some
significant practical problem. It should be socially relevant.

7. Research personnel: Research undertaken by professors and by research

organizations require the services of investigators and research officers. But in
developing countries, research has not yet become are awarding profession. Hence
qualified persons are not attracted to research projects. Each identified problem must be
evaluated in terms of the above internal and external criteria and the most appropriate,
one may be selected by are research scholar.

The Role of Theory in Problem Formulation

Theory plays a dual role in research.

 On the one hand, new theories solve research problems by accounting for
unexplained phenomena and by superseding questionable older theories.

 On the other hand, existing theory guides researchers in formulating research

problems. In determining whether and in what respects a phenomenon or a
theory is problematic, researchers consider the context of accumulated
theoretical as well as empirical knowledge.

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Sources of Research Problem
Potential sources of research problems include:

 School library (reading through literature or archival material)

 Community (consultations or narrations or public participation processes)

 Own experiences (observations)

 Classroom lectures (narration and disputation)

 Class discussions (argumentation)

 Seminars/workshops/paper presentations (narrations, disputations,

argumentation)

 Internet (narrations or observations)

 Research reports and term papers (investigations)

Guidelines for selecting a research problem

1. The research problem should be such in which researcher may be deeply interested

2. The research problem should be focused in the sense of being related to the
researcher’s overall logic. A diffuse and unfocused problem reduces the efficiency of the
effort put in a research project.

3. The problem selected should not necessarily be a new one. It maybe old problem or
one on which work has already been done.

4. The problem should be within meaningful limits i.e .it should not be too
comprehensive
Considerations in Selecting a Research Problem

These help to ensure that your study will remain manageable and that you will remain
motivated.
A research endeavor is usually time consuming, and involves hard work and possibly
unforeseen problems. One should select a topic of great interest to sustain the required
motivation.
2 Magnitude: It is extremely important to select a topic that you can manage within
the time and resources at your disposal. Narrow the topic down to something
manageable, specific and clear.
21
3 Level of expertise: Make sure that you have an adequate level of expertise for the
task you are proposing since you need to do the work yourself.
4 Relevance: Ensure that your study adds to the existing body of knowledge, bridges
current gaps and is useful in policy formulation. This will help you to sustain
interest in the study.
5 Availability of data: Before finalizing the topic, make sure that data are available.
6 Ethical issues: How ethical issues can affect the study and how ethical problems can
be overcome should be thoroughly examined at the problem formulating stage.

Principle Components in the Formulation of a Problem

 The originating questions (what one wants to know?)
 The rationale–theoretical or practical (why one wants to have the questions
answered?)
 The specifying questions (possible answers to the originating)

The researcher must at the same time examine all available literature to get himself
acquainted with the selected problem. He may review two types of literature—the
conceptual literature concerning the concepts and theories, and the empirical literature
consisting of studies made earlier which are similar to the one proposed. The basic
outcome of this review will be the knowledge as to what data and other materials are
available for operational purposes which will enable the researcher to specify his own
research problem in a meaningful context. After this the researcher rephrases the
problem into analytical or operational terms i.e., to put the problem in as specific terms
as possible. This task of formulating, or defining, a research problem is a step of greatest
importance in the entire research process. The problem to be investigated must be
defined unambiguously for that will help discriminating relevant data from irrelevant
ones.

2.5 Purpose of the study

A purpose is a broad statement that indicates what you intend to do about the problem
you are investigating. In other words, you should show what you intend to achieve at
the end of your research.

2.6 Formulating objectives and research questions

a) Defining Objectives and Research Questions

Good objectives should derive directly from the purpose. Objectives are what a
researcher aims at achieving through the proposed research. Objectives determine the
data collection and analysis procedures to be used. It is therefore important for the
objectives to be clear, unambiguous and brief.

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Characteristics of a Good Objective (SMART)

 Specific: - The objective identifies specific variables and activity.

 Measurable: - It must be possible to determine if the objective had been met by

using relevant indicators.

 Achievable: - It is feasible or viable in relation to researches, activities, and the

time available.

 Reliable: - so that once accomplished, the results will have solved the problem it
was intended to.

 Time bound: - One should be able to schedule a specific time period to

accomplish the activity.

Research questions are questions which a researcher would like answered by

undertaking the study. The difference between research questions and objectives is that
a research question is stated in a question form while an objective is a statement.

b) Formulating Hypothesis (Predictive Statement)

A hypothesis, very simply speaking, is an educated guess. It is a declaration statement,

which could be both in a positive form as well as in a negative form. A hypothesis in a
negative form is known as a null hypothesis. A hypothesis should indicate a
relationship between two or more variables.

Characteristics of a good hypothesis

 It should be clear and precise.

 It should be related to the purpose of the study.

 It should show the relationship between the variables.

 It should be consistent with a substantial body of established facts.

 It should be empirically testable; hence avoid moral judgments, which cannot be

verified.

23
2.7 Literature Review

This involves a systematic identification, location and analysis of documents containing

information related to the research problem being investigated.

Purposes of literature review

 To determine what has been done in the area being studied.

 Avoid unnecessary and unintentional duplication of work.

 Form framework from which research findings are interrupted.

 Demonstrate writer’s familiarity with the existing body of knowledge.

 Reveal strategies, procedures, and instruments that have been found useful in
investigating the problem in question, hence avoiding mistakes from previous
researches.

Steps in carrying out Literature Review

 Make a list of key phrases to guide your literature research.

 With these phrases, go to the library and find out sources of such information.

 Summarize the references.

 Using headings and sub-headings organize and report the literature in an

orderly manner.

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TOPIC 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
In this section, the study describes the procedures that have been followed in
conducting the study.

3.1 Research Design

You should specify the type of research design to be used. For example, experimental,
observational, correlational, case study, survey, etc. it is also important to briefly point
out why the chosen design is important for the proposed study.

Classification of Research Designs

Over the years several research designs have been developed, tested and used in
various fields.
Various types of research can be seen as an expression of differing research goals:
descriptive, exploratory, casual, experimental, and comparative research provide
somewhat different types of information.

Many projects combine two or more of these. Unfortunately, no simple classification

system defines all the variations that must be considered.

Overall, any design can be said to be either quantitative or qualitative. This is based on
the nature of the data they aim at and end up collecting. If the data can be quantified,
the design can be said to be quantitative. If the data to be collected is not of a
quantifiable nature, then the design is said to be qualitative. For example the attitudes
of a client towards a credit program services is largely qualitative.
Some authorities have thus classified research designs as follows:
 Quantitative designs
- Descriptive research
- Casual comparative
- Co-relational research
- Experimental research
 Qualitative designs
- Case study
- Historical research

We can classify research design using at least seven other different perspectives.

a) . The degree to which the research problem has been crystallized

– Exploratory study
– Formal study
25
The difference between the two lies in the degree of structure and the immediate
objective of the study. An exploratory study uses loose structures and the objective is to
discover future research tasks. The formal study begins with a hypothesis or question. It
involves precise procedures and data specification of data sources. Its objective is to test
the hypothesis or answer the research questions. The distinction between the two is
however not very precise.
b) According to the method of data collection
- Observational study
- Survey study
In monitoring (which includes observational studies), the researcher looks at the
subjects, which are not asked any questions. For example, observing the actions of a
credit group during a meeting. In a survey study, the researcher asks the subjects
questions and collects their responses.
c) According to the ability of the researcher to manipulate or produce effects in the
variables under study
- Experimental study
- Ex-post facto study
In an experiment, the researcher is able to control and / or manipulate the variables e.g.
to change them or hold them constant. It is the most powerful support possible for a
hypothesis of causation.
In an ex-post facto design, the researcher has no control over the variables. The
researcher can only report what is happening.
d) According to the purpose of the study
- Descriptive study
- Casual study
A descriptive study seeks to find out who, what, where, when, or how much - e.g. a
study on delinquency. A casual study seeks to explain relationships among variables.
E.g. why delinquency rates are higher in one branch than the other.
e) According to the time dimension
- Cross-sectional study
- Longitudinal study
- Historical study
A cross-sectional study describes a sample at a particular point in time – a snapshot of
the phenomenon at the time. A longitudinal study describes a sample over a period of
time for the purpose of tracking changes in the samples (same people over a period of
time) cohort group studies (where different subjects are used for each subsequent
measurement)
A historical study is a systematic or objective location evaluation and synthesis of
evidence in order to establish facts and draw conclusions about past events.
f) According to the topical scope
- Case study
- Statistical study

26
A case study emphasizes a full contextual analysis of fewer events or conditions and
their interrelations. Hypothesis may be used, but the study relies on qualitative data,
which makes valuable insight for problem solving, evaluation and strategy. In addition,
it relies on a multiple sources of information.
A statistical study is designed for breadth rather than depth. A statistical study attempts
to capture the characteristics of a population by making inferences from a sample’s
characteristics.
Here hypothesis are tested quantitatively. If sample is large enough to represent the
population, it is possible to make generalizations.
g) According to the research environment
- Field conditions research
- Laboratory conditions research
- Simulation research
Field conditions studies are those that occur under actual environmental conditions.
Laboratory conditions studies are carried out under laboratory controlled conditions.
Simulations arise out of replicating the essence of a system or process. Examples of
simulations: where characteristics of various conditions and relationships in actual
situations are often represented in mathematical models; role-playing etc.

3.2 Population and Sample

Describe the population from which the sample will be drawn. Population is defined as
a complete set of individual cases of objects with same common observable
characteristics. A subset of a particular population is called a sample. For example, one
may want to study lecturers in public universities. A sample of two hundred lecturers
drawn from all the public universities constitutes the sample.

i. Sampling Procedures

To select a representative sample, a researcher must first have a sampling frame. A

sampling frame is a list of cases from which a sample can be selected. Examples of
sampling frame include: a national census list, list of professionals in a particular field,
students’ registers, etc. in some cases, one may not have a sampling frame.

ii. Sampling Methods

There are two types of sampling procedures. These are the probability and the non-
probability sampling procedures.

The probability sampling is used on samples from a specified population. Probability

sampling includes the following:

27
  Simple random sampling

 Systematic random sampling

 Stratified random sampling

 Cluster sampling

Non-probability sampling is used when a researcher is dealing with unspecified (non-

listed) accessible populations. This includes:

 Purposive sampling

 Quota sampling

 Voluntary sampling

 Convenient sampling

3.4 Research Instruments

A researcher needs to develop instruments with which to collect the necessary data. In
social science research, the most commonly used instruments are: questionnaires,
interview schedules, observational forms, and standardized tests.

i. Questionnaires

There are two broad categories of questions that are used in questionnaires:

 Structured or closed-ended.

 Unstructured or open-ended.

Structured/closed-ended questions are accompanied by a list of all possible alternatives

from which respondents select the answer that best describes their situation. In many
cases the category ‘other’ is included to take care of the responses which may not fit in
the given categories.

e.g.: what is your level of education?

(a) Primary (b) Secondary (c) Degree (d) Others

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Advantages

 They are easier to analyze since they are in immediate usable form.

 They are easier to administer because each item is followed by alternative

answers.

 They are economical to use in terms of time and money.

Disadvantages

 They are difficult to construct because categories must be well thought out.

 Responses are limited and the respondent is compelled to answer questions

according to the researcher’s choices.

Unstructured/open-ended questions give the respondent complete freedom of responses.

E.g. How do you keep record of your monthly expenditure in your household?

Advantages

 They permit a greater depth of responses.

 They are simpler to formulate hence no need for response categories.

 The responses may give an insight into the background, motivation, feelings, and
interests.

 They can stimulate a person to express what he considers most important.

Disadvantages

 There is a tendency to give irrelevant answers.

 The responses are difficult to analyze quantitatively.

 It is time consuming for the respondents and this may put off some of them.

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 ii. Interviews

Interviews are face-to-face encounters with respondents. The interviewer usually uses
an interview schedule (a set of questions to be asked). An interview schedule can be
structured, semi-structured, or unstructured. Structured questions usually have
categories with responses and answers.

Unstructured interviews (sometimes called guides) have a general plan that the
interviewer follows. The interviewer asks questions intended to meet the study
objectives (here probing is commonly used).

Some interviews are semi-structured. Semi-structured interviews have some questions

with categories and some open-ended ones.

An interviewer may take notes or use tape/video recording (each of these has
advantages and disadvantages). Telephone interviews can also be used when
appropriate.

Advantages

 They provide in-depth data which is not possible to get for a questionnaire.

 Interviews guard against confusing the questions.

 They are more flexible than questionnaires.

 They may elicit very sensitive and personal information.

 The interviewer can clarify the purpose of research and get more information by
probing.

Disadvantages

 They can introduce bias and subjectivity into the study.

 Interviews are more suitable for smaller samples.

 Responses may be influenced by the respondent’s reaction to the interviewer.

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 iii. Observation

When using this as a data collection instrument, during the data collection the
researcher checks off behavior as it occurs. The behavior should be described in
sufficient detail.

Advantages

 Observation gives more accurate information.

 It can be used alongside other instruments.

 Observation can be done repeatedly too verify information.

Disadvantages

 It is time consuming.

 It is not very suitable for surveys because only a few cases can be observed in
detail.

 It might require further training of observers (in case of more than one).

 Sometimes it is biased because people may choose to pay undue attention on

some aspects and ignore others.

3.5 Data Collection

After obtaining the necessary approvals, permissions, and documents, the researcher
must embark on collection of primary data from the field using the appropriate
techniques. Make adequate arrangements for the coordinating of research assistants
(where applicable), checking all your data, and storing the data.

In dealing with any real life problem it is often found that data at hand are inadequate,
and hence, it becomes necessary to collect data that are appropriate. There are several
ways of collecting the appropriate data which differ considerably in context of money
costs, time and other resources at the disposal of the researcher.

Primary data can be collected either through experiment or through survey. If the
researcher conducts an experiment, he observes some quantitative measurements, or

31
the data, with the help of which he examines the truth contained in his hypothesis. But
in the case of a survey, data can be collected by any one or more of the following ways:

(i) By observation: This method implies the collection of information by way of

investigator’s own observation, without interviewing the respondents. The
information obtained relates to what is currently happening and is not
complicated by either the past behaviour or future intentions or attitudes of
respondents. This method is no doubt an expensive method and the
information provided by this method is also very limited. As such this
method is not suitable in inquiries where large samples are concerned.

(ii) Through personal interviews: The investigator follows a rigid procedure and
seeks answers to a set of pre-conceived questions through personal
interviews. This method of collecting data is usually carried out in a
structured way where output depends upon the ability of the interviewer to a
large extent.

(iii) Through telephone interviews: This method of collecting information involves

contacting the respondents on telephone itself. This is not a very widely used
method but it plays an important role in industrial surveys in developed
regions, particularly, when the survey has to be accomplished in a very
limited time.

(iv) By mailing of questionnaires: The researcher and the respondents do come in

contact with each other if this method of survey is adopted. Questionnaires
are mailed to the respondents with a request to return after completing the
same. It is the most extensively used method in various economic and
business surveys. Before applying this method, usually a Pilot Study for
testing the questionnaire is conduced which reveals the weaknesses, if any, of
the questionnaire? Questionnaire to be used must be prepared very carefully
so that it may prove to be effective in collecting the relevant information.

(v) Through schedules: Under this method the enumerators are appointed and given
training. They are provided with schedules containing relevant questions.

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 These enumerators go to respondents with these schedules. Data are collected
by filling up the schedules by enumerators on the basis of replies given by
respondents. Much depends upon the capability of enumerators so far as this
method is concerned. Some occasional field checks on the work of the
enumerators may ensure sincere work.

The researcher should select one of these methods of collecting the data taking into
consideration the nature of investigation, objective and scope of the inquiry, financial
resources, available time and the desired degree of accuracy. Though he should pay
attention to all these factors but much depends upon the ability and experience of the
researcher.

3.6 Execution of the Project

Execution of the project is a very important step in the research process. If the execution
of the project proceeds on correct lines, the data to be collected would be adequate and
dependable. The researcher should see that the project is executed in a systematic
manner and in time. If the survey is to be conducted by means of structured
questionnaires, data can be readily machine-processed. In such a situation, questions as
well as the possible answers may be coded. If the data are to be collected through
interviewers, arrangements should be made for proper selection and training of the
interviewers. The training may be given with the help of instruction manuals which
explain clearly the job of the interviewers at each step. Occasional field checks should be
made to ensure that the interviewers are doing their assigned job sincerely and
efficiently. A careful watch should be kept for unanticipated factors in order to keep the
survey as much realistic as possible. This, in other words, means that steps should be
taken to ensure that the survey is under statistical control so that the collected
information is in accordance with the pre-defined standard of accuracy. If some of the
respondents do not cooperate, some suitable methods should be designed to tackle this
problem. One method of dealing with the non-response problem is to make a list of the
non-respondents and take a small sub-sample of them, and then with the help of
experts vigorous efforts can be made for securing response.

3.7 Analysis of Data

After the data have been collected, the researcher turns to the task of analyzing them.
The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as
establishment of categories, the application of these categories to raw data through
coding, tabulation and then drawing statistical inferences. The unwieldy data should
33
necessarily be condensed into a few manageable groups and tables for further analysis.
Thus, researcher should classify the raw data into some purposeful and usable
categories. Coding operation is usually done at this stage through which the categories
of data are transformed into symbols that may be tabulated and counted. Editing is the
procedure that improves the quality of the data for coding. With coding the stage is
ready for tabulation. Tabulation is a part of the technical procedure wherein the
classified data are put in the form of tables. The mechanical devices can be made use of
at this juncture. A great deal of data, especially in large inquiries, is tabulated by
computers. Computers not only save time but also make it possible to study large
number of variables affecting a problem simultaneously.

Analysis work after tabulation is generally based on the computation of various

percentages, coefficients, etc., by applying various well defined statistical formulae. In
the process of analysis, relationships or differences supporting or conflicting with
original or new hypotheses should be subjected to tests of significance to determine
with what validity data can be said to indicate any conclusion(s). For instance, if there
are two samples of weekly wages, each sample being drawn from factories in different
parts of the same city, giving two different mean values, then our problem may be
whether the two mean values are significantly different or the difference is just a matter
of chance. Through the use of statistical tests we can establish whether such a difference
is a real one or is the result of random fluctuations. If the difference happens to be real,
the inference will be that the two samples come from different universes and if the
difference is due to chance, the conclusion would be that the two samples belong to the
same universe. Similarly, the technique of analysis of variance can help us in analyzing
whether three or more varieties of seeds grown on certain fields yield significantly
different results or not. In brief, the researcher can analyze the collected data with the
help of various statistical measures.

3.8 Hypothesis-testing

After analyzing the data as stated above, the researcher is in a position to test the
hypotheses, if any, he had formulated earlier. Do the facts support the hypotheses or
they happen to be contrary? This is the usual question which should be answered while
testing hypotheses. Various tests, such as Chi square test, t-test, F-test, have been
developed by statisticians for the purpose. The hypotheses may be tested through the
use of one or more of such tests, depending upon the nature and object of research
inquiry. Hypothesis-testing will result in either accepting the hypothesis or in rejecting
it. If the researcher had no hypotheses to start with, generalizations established on the

34
basis of data may be stated as hypotheses to be tested by subsequent researches in times
to come.

3.9 Generalizations and Interpretation

If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may be possible for the researcher
to arrive at generalization, i.e., to build a theory. As a matter of fact, the real value of
research lies in its ability to arrive at certain generalizations. If the researcher had no
hypothesis to start with, he might seek to explain his findings on the basis of some
theory. It is known as interpretation. The process of interpretation may quite often
trigger off new questions which in turn may lead to further researches.

3.10 Preparation of the report or the Thesis

Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been done by him. Writing
of report must be done with great care keeping in view the following:

a) The layout of the report should be as follows: (i) the preliminary pages; (ii) the main
text, and (iii) the end matter.

In its preliminary pages the report should carry title and date followed by
acknowledgements and foreword. Then there should be a table of contents followed by
a list of tables and list of graphs and charts, if any, given in the report.

The main text of the report should have the following parts:

(i) Introduction: It should contain a clear statement of the objective of the research
and an explanation of the methodology adopted in accomplishing the research.
The scope of the study along with various limitations should as well be stated in
this part.

(ii) Summary of findings: After introduction there would appear a statement of

findings and recommendations in non-technical language. If the findings are
extensive, they should be summarized.

(iii) Main report: The main body of the report should be presented in logical
sequence and broken-down into readily identifiable sections.

35
 (iv) Conclusion: Towards the end of the main text, researcher should again
put down the results of his research clearly and precisely. In fact, it is the final
summing up.

b) Report should be written in a concise and objective style in simple language

avoiding vague expressions such as ‘it seems,’ ‘there may be’, and the like.

c) Charts and illustrations in the main report should be used only if they present the
information more clearly and forcibly.

d) Calculated ‘confidence limits’ must be mentioned and the various constraints

experienced in conducting research operations may as well be stated.

TOPIC 4: THE RESEARCH REPORT

4.1 Qualities of a good research report

Many people often have creative research ideas but few of them gain their way into a
neither concrete research project proposal nor actual research publication. More often
than not, this is usually due to the fear of how one would come up with a good report
write-up.

Nearly all research project reports follow a similar format of writing. This is because all
such write-ups are usually reports of what the researcher actually did and the results or
conclusions they came up with.

There are, however, some minor peculiar differences between the various reports and
this result from the nature of the study carried out. In this case, the research could be in
the social science field or a practical study investigating a certain practical scientific
phenomena.

Thus the qualities of an excellent polished research project reports include:

a) It must be written in easy to understand vocabulary as the aim of the report is to

convey the message in the write-up.

36
 b) It must have clear and short title related to the research problem.

c) It must give a summary (abstract) of the whole research in the introductory

pages of the write-up.

d) The report must have the methodology section to show how the research was
carried out.

e) It must have a discussion of the findings and the conclusion section.

f) The report must be easily legible, written with good font type and font size even
though different authorities recommend different styles.

g) Ensure you reference all work that is not originally yours. This gives
acknowledgement to the original generators of such work. Different styles of
referencing exist including APA, MLA, etc. depending on the locality and nature
of your research write-up.

h) Avoid plagiarism at all costs. It is the ‘HIV’ of intellectual resources.

i) Remember your audience. Be it a post graduate research dissertation, Masters

Research thesis, or a senior final year college research report; write with the end
user in mind.

A well written research report comprises of distinct sections. The following is a

checklist of the various components that should be included in the report:

1. Title page : (title, names, reason for thesis (e.g. partial fulfilment), to whom
presented)

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 2. Declaration page: (declaration, names, and signatures)

3. Dedication

4. Acknowledgement: (expression of thanks)

5. Abstract: (Purpose of Study, Population studied, Methods used, Major results,

Conclusion ( a half to one page)

6. Table of contents: (involves major areas in the study and their page numbers)

7. List of tables: (should indicate the title of the table and the page it is found)

8. List of figures: (the title of the figure and the page it is found)

9. List of abbreviations and acronyms

4.1 Sections of a research report

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.0. Introduction

Chapter 1 serves to introduce the problem and the purpose of the study. It acquaints the
reader with the problem. The following areas of discussion are frequently included as
subsections in the introduction chapter.
 Background of the problem
 Statement of the problem
 Purpose of the study or general objective
 Research questions or specific objectives or hypotheses
 Importance or justification or rationale of the study
 Scope of the study
 Chapter summary

1.1. Background of the Study

In this section, the researcher defines the context of the study by providing a brief
discussion of key theoretical approaches and findings reported in earlier related
studies. Trends related to the problem, unresolved issues and social concerns are
discussed. Authoritative sources or citations should be provided in the section.

1.2. Statement of the Problem

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The problem statement describes the need for the research project in terms of the
knowledge gap to be filled. The researcher should present a clear and precise statement
that indicates the gap that previous research studies have not addressed. Authoritative
sources or citations should be used to support the problem statement.

1.3. Purpose of the Study or General Objective

In this section the major research objective is addressed. The purpose statement should
emphasize practical outcomes or products of the study. For example, “The purpose of
this study was to determine (measure, examine, or evaluate) factor that influence the
growth of
Microfinance industry in Kenya”.

1.4. Research Objectives

Good research objectives should be derived from the purpose of the study. Specific
objectives to be investigated should be state

1.5. Research Questions

The research questions need to be broad enough to allow further breakdown into
questionnaire or interview guide items for the data collection. On the average 3- 5
research questions are sufficient.

1.6. Research Hypothesis

The hypothesis should be stated if the study involves experimental designs or

statistical tests.

1.7. Significance/Justification of the Study

In this section the researcher describes the values or the benefits that will accrue from
doing the study. The significance of the study is concerned with the relevance of the
problem both to the practice and theory. That is, does the study explore an important
question, meet a recognized need or make a useful contribution to practice and theory.
Much value is placed on doing research, which has primary value for the solution of
practical oriented business problems.
1.8. Scope of the Study
In this section, the researcher describes the focus or scope of the study to enable an
enthusiastic reader to make generalization of the findings. The scope should address the
limitations of the research in terms of geographical coverage, population or subjects,
and time period involved.

The limitations should not be stated in terms of time or financial resources constraints.

39
Researchers are expected to plan and implement research projects within the available
time and financial resources.

1.9. Conclusion

A synopsis of the major contents of chapter one including the purpose, justification, and
scope should be presented. A brief description of the remaining chapters of the project
should also be provided at this stage.

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

The literature review section should present a review of the literature related to the
problem or purpose of the study. The section should therefore be organized or
structured according to the research questions or specific objectives in order to ensure
relevance to the research problem.

The literature review examines recent (at most 10 years) research studies, company data
or industry reports that act as a basis for the proposed study. Literature review is meant
to give the reader an overview of previous relevant contributions to the problem so that
they can better understand the research problem and methodology to be used in the
study.

Specifically, the purpose of literature review is to:

• Help eliminate duplication of what has been done.
• Provide a clear understanding of existing knowledge base in the problem area.
The literature review should be based on authoritative, recent, and original sources
such as journals, books, thesis or dissertations. The section should end with a summary
of the important aspects discussed.

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY
Research methodology section describes the methods and procedures used to carry out
the study.
This is an important section, which has direct influence on the findings of the study.
Hence, the methodology used should be described very clearly so that another
researcher can follow the procedures used to reach similar conclusions without
difficulty.

The methodology chapter should include the following subsections:

3.0. Introduction

40
The chapter should start with a brief introduction highlighting the general methodology
and organization or structure of the chapter.

3.1. Study area

The researcher should clearly indicate the place and region where the study was
conducted.

3.2. Research design

In this section, the researcher should identify, define, and provide justification for the
specific research design or strategy used in carrying out the study. Research designs
include experimental, exploratory, descriptive, causal, or case study. In descriptive
studies, survey or case study, the emphasis is placed on defining the design, revealing
its merits and providing justification for its selection. In experimental study, the tests,
equipment and control conditions should be described. The researcher should also
define the dependent and independent variables studied, the procedures used to
examine the variables and steps taken to control for extraneous influences that might
threaten the findings of the study.

Components of a good Research Design:

• Define the information needed
• Determine the type of research to be undertaken: exploratory, descriptive, or causal
• Specify the collection instruments and scaling procedures
• Specify the sampling process and sample size
• Develop a plan for data analysis
• Specify budgeting and project scheduling

Characteristic of a good design

a) Has power to detect relationship among variables
b) Appropriate for the research questions
c) Minimizes bias and maximizes the reliability
d) Has smallest errors
e) Yields maximum information and provide an opportunity for considering many
different aspects of a problem

3.3. Population and sample

The researcher should identify and describe the characteristics of the population
involved in the study. Population refers to the entire group of people, events, or things
of interest that the researcher wishes to investigate. Population forms a basis from
which the sample or subjects for the study is drawn.

41
 3.4. Sample design and sample size

In this section, detailed description of sampling method and the actual sample size
should be provided. Sampling methods may include probability and non-probability
techniques. In non-probability sampling designs, the elements in the population do not
have any probabilities attached to their being chosen as sample subjects. This means
that the findings from the study of the sample cannot be confidently generalized to the
population. Typical examples of nonprobability sampling techniques include
convenience sampling, and purposive sampling.
To ensure fair representation and generalization of finding to the general population,
probability sampling technique should be used. Typical examples of probability
sampling include simple random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified random
sampling and cluster sampling. The sample size should, therefore, be representative of
the general population.

3.5. Research instruments

The researcher should specify the instruments used in collecting the data.

3.6. Data collection procedure

In this section, the researcher should describe the major methods for collecting data
from the subjects. The major methods for obtaining data in a study may include
interviews, questionnaires and observation techniques. The data collection instruments
should be developed and organized on the basis of the research questions or specific
objectives to ensure relevance to the research problem. A description of the instruments
should be given, whether they are researcher developed or standardized instruments. A
description of the nature of instrument items, validity and reliability, and
administration procedures should be provided.

3.7. Data Analysis Methods

The researcher should identify and describe appropriate data analysis methods for the
study.
Quantitative approaches in terms of descriptive statistics or inferential statistics should
be described. Descriptive statistics include frequencies, measures of central tendencies
(mean, medium or mode) and measures of dispersion (standard deviation, range or
variance). Inferential statistics involve measurement or relationships and differences
between or among the variables.
Inferential statistics include correlation, regression and analysis of variance among
others.

42
Data analysis tools in terms of computer application packages (Excel, SPSS or SAS)
should also be described. Data presentation methods in terms of tables, graphs or charts
should also be described in this section. Qualitative data should be summarized and
categorized according to common themes and presented in frequency distribution
tables.

3.8. Conclusion

The methodology chapter should end with a summary or synopsis of the main elements
discussed in the section.

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TOPIC 5 CHAPTER 4: (DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS, AND
INTERPRETATION)
Introduce your readers to what we expect to find in the chapter. In addition tell us how
you have organized the chapter.

Analysis of the Response Rate

Tell us how many questionnaires you issues, how many where returned and what is
that response rate (Insert a table also)
Analysis of the Background Information
This section will enable you to analyze the background information of the
questionnaire. i.e. the gender, level of education, marital status .etc
Quantitative Analysis
Used to analyze and present results of the closed- ended questions in the questionnaire
and you should organize the section based on your objectives in chapter one.
Qualitative Analysis
Used to analyze and present results of the open-ended questions in the questionnaire
through capturing the common answers in the open -ended questions based on their
commonality through content analysis. Also organize the section based on your
objectives in chapter one.
Overview
This is generally the longest section of the research project. The objective is to present
and explain the data rather than draw interpretations or conclusions. The findings
should be presented and analyzed on the basis of the research questions, specific
objectives or hypotheses. Tables, charts or graphs should be used to present
quantitative data when appropriate. A brief description in words of what is shown in
the table or figure should be provided. A general rule is to prepare the table or figure
and the text, in such a way that they can stand alone in describing the outcomes of the
study.

TOPIC 6: CHAPTER 5: (DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION, AND

RECOMMENDATIONS)

5.1. Introduction

The section should start with a brief summary of the structure or organization of the
chapter.
Introduce us to the chapter, for example this chapter will present summary of findings,
answers to research questions, conclusions will be drawn from the data analysis
44
performed in this chapter four. Implications drawn from this study and its impact on
policy and professional practice will be discussed, subsequently. The study will end
with recommendations reached.

5.2. Summary

The final chapter of the research project should provide a summary of important
elements including the purpose of the study and research questions or specific
objectives, methodology used and major findings or results. You are supposed to
provide a pre-view of the main purpose (i.e. the general objective or the problem) of the
study and the specific objectives, which directed the study, then provide a summary of
findings from chapter four supporting your findings with statistics from data analysis.
Organize this section based on your specific objectives such that each objective forms a
paragraph on its own.
5.3. Discussion
The discussion section should focus on the major findings of the study and should be
organized or structured according to the research questions, specific objectives or
hypothesis. The section should not be a repeat of the study findings and results as
presented in chapter 4, instead it should provide interpretation of the results by
comparing them to the findings of previous studies or theoretical background
presented in the literature review.

This section serves to present the specific discussion about each of the research
questions as a first step in addressing the research problem. The research questions first
developed in Chapter one are re-stated and answers provided from chapter four (Data
analysis & Presentation of
Results). The answers are discussed by comparing with your literature review in
chapter two reviewed at proposal level.
5.4. Conclusions
In this section, major conclusions drawn from the research findings should be
presented.
Conclusions should be drawn about each of the specific objectives based on the answers
provided above for the research questions/based on research findings.
5.5. Recommendations
Research projects should provide recommendations for practice or improvement and
for further studies. In applied research recommendations are often provided for practice
or improvement. In this case the researcher offers suggestions for improvement with
justification. Research projects often pave way for further work. Consequently, the
researcher should provide suggestions for future research work based on the findings
and conclusions generated from the study.

45
6.2 Ethical issues in research

When most people think of research ethics, they think about issues that arise when the
research involves human or animal subjects.

While these issues are indeed a key part of research ethics, there are also wider issues
about standards of conduct. These include the importance of publishing findings in a
transparent way, not plagiarizing others’ work, and not falsifying work.

6.3 The Importance of Research Ethics

Research ethics are important for a number of reasons:

a) They promote the aims of research, such as expanding knowledge.

b) They support the values required for collaborative work, such as mutual respect
and fairness. This is essential because scientific research depends on
collaboration between researchers and groups.

c) They mean that researchers can be held accountable for their actions. Many
researchers are supported by public money, and regulations on conflict of
interest,, misconduct, and research involving humans or animals are necessary to
ensure that money is spent appropriately.

d) They ensure that the public can trust research. For people to support and fund
research, they have to be confident in it. They support important social and
moral values, such as the principle of doing no harm to others.

6.4 Code of ethics

Government agencies who fund or commission research often publish codes of conduct
for researchers, or codes of ethics.

Many or even most ethical codes cover the following areas:

a) Honesty and integrity

This means that you need to report your research honestly, and that this applies to your
methods (what you did), your data, your results, and whether you have previously
published any of it. You should not make up any data, including extrapolating
unreasonably from some of your results, or do anything which could be construed as
trying to mislead anyone. It is better to undersell than exaggerate your findings.
46
When working with others, you should always keep to any agreements and act
sincerely.

b) Objectivity

You should aim to avoid bias in any aspect of your research, including design, data
analysis, interpretation, and peer review. For example, you should never recommend as
a peer reviewer, someone you know, or who you have worked with, and you should try
to ensure that all groups are inadvertently excluded from your research. This also
means that you need to disclose any personal or financial interests that may affect your
research.

c) Carefulness

Take care in carrying out your research to avoid careless mistakes. You should also
review your work carefully and critically to ensure that your results are credible. It is
also important to keep full records of your research. If you are asked to act as a peer
reviewer, you should take time to do the job effectively and fully.

d) Openness

You should always be prepared to share your data and results along with any new tools
that you have developed, when you publish your findings, as this helps to further
knowledge and advance science. You should also be open to criticism and new ideas.

e) Respect for intellectual property

You should never plagiarize, or copy, other people’s work and try to pass it off as your
own. You should always ask for permission before using other people’s tools or
methods, unpublished data, or results. Not doing so is plagiarism. Obviously you need
to respect copyrights and patents, together with other forms of intellectual property,
and always acknowledge contributions to your research. If in doubt, acknowledge to
avoid any risk of plagiarism.

f) Confidentiality

You should respect anything that has been provided in confidence. You should also
follow guidelines on protection of sensitive information such as patient records.

47
 g) Responsible publication

You should publish to advance the state of research and knowledge, and not just to
advance your career. This means, in essence, that you should not publish anything that
is not new, or that duplicates someone else’s work.

h) Legality

You should always be aware of the laws and regulations that govern your work, and be
sure to conform to them.

i) Animal Care

If you are using animals in your research, you should always be sure that your
experiments are both necessary and well designed. You should also show respect for
the animals you are using, and make sure that they are properly cared for.

j) Human Subjects Protection

If your research involves people, you should make sure that you reduce any possible
harm to the minimum, and maximize the benefits both to the participants and other
people.

This means that for example you should not expose people to more tests than are
strictly necessary to fulfill your research aims. You should always respect human rights,
including the right to privacy and autonomy. You may need to take particular care with
vulnerable groups, which include, but not limited to, children, older people, and those
with learning difficulties.

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49
50
REFERENCES

APPENDICES:

 Questionnaire sample

 Interview guide

 Observation guide

 Photos, etc.

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TOPIC 7: WORK PLAN AND BUDGET

7.1 Work Plan

A WORK PLAN is a schedule, chart or graph that summarizes the different
components of a research project and how they will be implemented in a coherent way
within a specific timespan.
It may include:
• The tasks to be performed;
• When and where the tasks will be performed; and
• Who will perform the tasks and the time each person will spend on them.
Work plan could be presented in different forms, such as work schedule and GANTT
chart.

A GANTT chart is a planning tool that depicts graphically the order in which various
tasks must be completed and the duration of each activity. The length of each task is
shown by a bar that extends over the number of days, weeks or months the task is
expected to take.

How can a work plan be used?

A work plan can serve as:
 A tool for planning the details of the project activities and drafting a budget.
 A visual outline or illustration of the sequence of project operations. It can
facilitate presentations and negotiations concerning the project with government
authorities and other funding agencies.
 A management tool for the Team Leader and members of the research team,
showing what tasks and activities are planned, their timing, and when various
staff members will be involved in various tasks.
 A tool for monitoring and evaluation, when the current status of the project is
compared to what had been foreseen in the work plan.

 Lecturer to provide example of a work plan

7.2 Budget

Why do we need to design a budget?

 A detailed budget will help you to identify which resources are already locally
available and which additional resources may be required.
 The process of budget design will encourage you to consider aspects of the work
plan you have not thought about before and will serve as a useful reminder of
activities planned, as your research gets underway.
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How should a budget be prepared?
It is necessary to use the work plan as a starting point. Specify, for each activity in the
work plan, what resources are required. Determine for each resource needed the unit
cost and the total cost.

The budget for the fieldwork component of the work plan will include funds for
personnel, transport and supplies.
Note that UNIT COST (e.g., per diem or cost of petrol per km), the MULTIPLYING
FACTOR (number of days), and TOTAL COST are required for all budget categories.

Budget justification
It is not sufficient to present a budget without explanation. The budget justification
follows the budget as an explanatory note justifying briefly, in the context of the
proposal, why the various items in the budget are required. Make sure you give clear
explanations concerning why items that may seem questionable or that are particularly
costly are needed and discuss how complicated expenses have been calculated. If a
strong budget justification has been prepared, it is less likely that essential items will be
cut during proposal review.

 Lecturer to provide example of a budget

TOPIC 8: REFERENCING STYLES

8.1 Introduction
To avoid plagiarism in research projects, a researcher is required to acknowledge the
sources of words, facts, or ideas borrowed from other scholars. Most academic
disciplines or professional bodies require special documentation formats or styles in
research project reports. Consequently, the style used should be consistent with the
requirements of each discipline. For example, the
American Psychological Association (APA) style is commonly used in social sciences,
business and economics fields; the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
(IEEE) style is used in electrical engineering and computer science fields; the Chicago
style is used in history, philosophy and humanities; and the MLA style is commonly
used as a guide in English and foreign languages fields.
Most professional publications have abandoned the use of footnotes or endnotes as a
method of referencing within text and have adopted instead the author/year method of

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documentation. The author year method provides the reader with names and dates in
the text that can be used to identify complete bibliographic listings in the reference list.
One main advantage of the author/year method is that it offers key documentary
information where appropriate within the text in order to ensure continuity in reading
and economic use of the page particularly where lengthy documentary information is
required.

8.2 The APA Referencing Style

The American Psychological Association (APA) publication style started way back in
1928 as a writing style among the psychologist scholars and professionals. Over the
years, the APA style gained acceptance in other scientific and non-scientific fields such
as business and economics as a standard format for writing scholarly papers. Today, it
is estimated that thousands of scholarly journals, magazines, and book publishers in the
United States and other countries in the world require authors to use APA style. APA
style uses the author-date method of citation. That is, the surname of the author and the
year of publication are inserted in the text at the appropriate point.

8.2.1 In-text referencing

Citation of an author’s work in text is used to document work, briefly identify the
sources for readers, and to enable the readers to locate the source of information in the
alphabetical reference list at the end of the paper. The sources of reference chosen
should be relevant and current.

i. Work by a Single Author

APA style uses the author-date method of citation; that is the surname of the author and
the year of publication are inserted in the text at the appropriate point. For example:

Human resource management can be defined as the management of activities

undertaken to attract, develop, motivate, and maintain a high performing workforce
within the organization (Harvey, 2001).

Kamau (1998) compared reaction times…………

In a recent study of reaction times, Kamau (1998), described the.. …... Kamau also found
that ………….
Within a paragraph, you need not include the year in subsequent references to a study
as long as the study cannot be confused with other studies cited in the article.

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ii. Work by Two or More Authors
When a work has two authors, always cite both names every time the reference
occurred in text.
For example:
According to Bowin and Harvey (2001) human resource management can be defined as
the management of activities undertaken to attract, develop, motivate, and maintain a
high performing workforce within the organization.

When a work has more than two authors and fewer than six authors, cite all the authors
he first time the reference occurs. In subsequent citations, include only the surname of
the first author followed by “et al.” and the year.

For example:
Kamau, Otieno, Patel, Smith, and Wanjiku (1998) found. …[first citations]

Kamau et al. (1998) found. ……………[subsequent citations]

Join the names in a multiple –author citation in running text by the word “and”. In the
reference list join the names by and ampersand “&”.

For example:
Wanjuki and Otieno (1999), demonstrated that ………..… [in text]
Wanjuki, M. & Otieno, J. (1999). Customer satisfaction..[in reference list]

iii. Corporate Authors

The names of corporate authors are usually spelled out each time they appear in a text
citation. The name of some corporate authors are spelled out in the first citation and
abbreviated thereafter. Corporate authors include organizations, associations or
government agencies. For example:

First text citation:

(National Institute of Mental Health [NIMH], 2001)
Subsequent text citations:
(NIMH, 2001)

iv. Authors with the Same Surname

If a reference list includes publications by two or more authors with the same surname,
include the author’s initials in all text citations to avoid confusion even if the year of
publication differs.

For example:
S. E. Patel (1996) and G. K. Patel (1990) also found …………
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v. Specific Parts of a Source or Quotation of Sources
To cite a specific part of a source, indicate the page or chapter at the appropriate point
in text. Always give a page number for quotations. Note that the word page and chapter
are abbreviated in text citations.
For example:
(Doti and Ruby, 1999, p. 10)
(Wilmarth, 2001, chap. 3)
By: Muathe SMA; PhD (student), MBA, AM1K6 IM
Smith (1999) stated that “The placebo effect disappeared when … behaviours were
studied in this manner” ( p. 276).

8.2.2 Reference List

• The Reference List should appear at the end of your work on a separate page.
• Only include references you have cited in your work.
• All references should have a hanging indent. That is, all lines of a reference
subsequent to the first line should be indented (see examples in the tables below).

• In general, references should be listed alphabetically by the last name of the first
author of each work.
• Special Reference List cases:
 In the case of works by different authors with the same family name, list
references alphabetically by the authors’ initials.
 In the case of multiple works by the same author in different years, list references
chronologically (earliest to latest).
 In the case of multiple works by the same author in the same year, list references
alphabetically by title in the

Reference List.
• When referring to Books, Book Chapters, Article Titles or Webpages, capitalise only
the first letter of the first word of a title and subtitle, and proper nouns.
Example: Aboriginals and the mining industry: Case studies of the Australian experience

• When referring to Journal Titles, capitalise all major words (do not capitalise words
such as ‘of’, ‘and’, & ‘the’ unless they are the first word in the title).
Example: Journal of Exercise Science and Fitness

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