Module – 2 Lathe, Drilling, Milling Machine, CNC & 3D Printing BESCK104D/204D

Module – 2 Machine Tool Operations:

Working Principle of lathe, Lathe operations: Turning, facing, knurling. Working principles
of Drilling Machine, drilling operations: drilling, boring, reaming. Working of Milling
Machine, Milling operations: plane milling and slot milling.
(No sketches of machine tools, sketches to be used only for explaining the operations).

Introduction to Advanced Manufacturing Systems: Introduction, components of CNC,

advantages and applications of CNC, 3D printing.

Lathe- Introduction
Manufacturing is a process of conversion of raw materials into useful products
Machining is the process of removing the excess material from the work piece in the form of
chips, by forcing a cutting tool with one or more cutting edges to obtain the required shape
and size.
Machine tool is defined as a power driver machine to produce a product by removing
the excess material using a cutting tool. The excess material removed is called as “CHIPS”.
The important machine tools are lathe, drilling machine, milling machine, grinding machine
etc.

Lathe- Introduction
Lathe is oldest of all machine tools and perhaps the most basic tool used in
industries. A Lathe is defined as a machine tool where a hard cutting tool is fed against the
rotating work piece to remove the excess material. A single point cutting tool is rigidly held
and supported in a tool post and is fed against the revolving work.

Working principle of lathe:

Lathe works on the principle that, a cutting tool can remove material, when it is
moved against a rotating work piece. This is accomplished by rotating the work piece
between two rigid and strong supports, while the cutting tool is fed against it. Basically
three types of surface can be produced depending on the movement of the cutting tool with
respect to the rotating work piece.
a) When the tool moves parallel to the axis of rotation of the work piece, a cylindrical
surface can be produced. The operation is termed as cylindrical or plain turning.
b) When the tool moves perpendicular to the axis of rotation of the work piece, a flat
surface can be produced. The operation is termed as facing.
c) When the tool moves at an angle to the axis of rotation of the work piece, a tapered
surface can be produced. The operation is termed as taper turning.

Working Principle of a lathe

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If the tool is moved parallel to the axis of rotation of the work, a cylindrical surface is
produced and if the tool is moved perpendicular to the axis of rotation of the work, it
produces a flat face.

Machining Operations on Lathe

1. Cylindrical turning or Plain turning or Turning

It is an operation of removing excess material from the work piece to produce a
cylindrical surface.
Using the cross slide, the cutting tool is first adjusted for the desired depth of cut.
Then the cutting tool is fed against the revolving work piece in the direction parallel to
the lathe axis.
In rough turning – deep depth of cut and a high feed rate.
In finish turning – light depth of cut and small feed rate.
A smooth surface with the specified tolerance can be produced in finish turning.

Turning

2. Facing
Facing is the operation for generating a flat surface at the end of the work piece.
One end of the work piece is held rigidly in the chuck and other end is left unsupported.
Tool is fed in a direction perpendicular to the lathe axis.
Facing is carried out to reduce the work piece to required length.
During facing the carriage is locked to the lathe bed to prevent its movement.
Using the cross slide, the tool is fed at right angles to the axis of the work piece.

Facing

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3. Knurling
Knurling is an operation for generating visually attractive criss-cross pattern and also to
produce gripping on the work piece, to provide grip on handles, screw heads and other
cylindrical parts to be gripped by hand.
The work piece revolves at a slow speed. The knurling tool (hardened steel wheels) is
pressed against the rotating work piece and pressure is slowly increased until the tool
produces and a pattern on the work pieces.
Depending on the knurling tool selected, variety of knurled patterns such as angle,
diamond, and straight can be produced.
Sometimes more than one pass may be required to get a deep cut.

Knurling

4. Taper Turning
Taper turning is the process of producing a conical surface from a cylindrical shaped
work piece. A taper is produced, when the cutting tool moves at an angle to the axis of
rotation of the work piece.

a) By Swivelling of Compound rest

Taper is produced, when the cutting tool moves at an angle to the lather axis because
the compound rest supporting the cutting tool is swivelled to the desired angle to
produce taper.
A taper can be produced with the use of compound rest.
The tool is mounted on the compound rest is attached to a circular base graduated in
degrees, which may be swivelled and clamped at any desired angle.
The tool is fed by hand by rotating the compound slide screw.
This method is suitable only for shorter length tapers.
The half taper angle (α) is the angle at which the compound rest to be swivelled is
calculated by the equation. Half taper angle

Where D = larger diameter of taper in mm.

d = smaller diameter of taper in mm.
L = length of taper in mm.

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Taper turning by swivelling the compound rest

b) By tailstock off set method:

Taper is produced by shifting the axis of rotation of the workpiece at an angle to the
lathe axis, and then the tool is moved parallel to the lathe axis.
This is achieved by moving the tail stock towards or away from the operator by
means of set over screw.
This method is used for producing small tapers on long work pieces. (As the carriage
is moved to cut the taper, it will be possible to produce taper on the long work pieces)
The angle at which the axis of rotation of the workpiece is shifted is equal to half angle
of the taper.
This is done by offsetting the body of the tailstock with respect to its base by an
amount equal to:

Taper turning by tailstock off set method:

D = larger diameter of taper in mm.

d = smaller diameter of taper in mm.
l = length of taper in mm.
L = Length of work in mm.

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Drilling

Drilling is a machining operation for producing a cylindrical hole in a solid work

piece by means of a revolving tool called drill bit.
The tool is also called twist drill, since it has sharp twisted edges formed around a
cylindrical body. The drill bit is held rigidly in the chuck of the machine and rotated by the
spindle at high speeds. The rotating drill bit is forced to move against the rigidly clamped
work piece. A hole is generated by the sharp cutting edges of the drill bit and meanwhile the
excess material removed (chips) gets curled and escapes through the helical grooves
provided in the drill bit. Drilling can be carried out on flat and inclined surfaces, and on a
variety of materials like metal, wood, plastics, ceramics and composites.

Drilling

Drilling
1. Reaming
Reaming is the operation of finishing a previously drilled hole to bring to a most
exact size and to improve surface finish of the hole.
The operation is carried out using a multi tooth revolving tool called reamer,
which consists of a set of parallel straight or helical cutting edges along the length
of the cylindrical body.
The speed of the spindle is reduced to nearly half of that of the drilling. The
material is removed in small amounts and hence the surface of the drilled hole is
finished with high accuracy.

Reaming Boring

2. Boring
It is the operation of enlarging a previously drilled hole by means of an adjustable
cutting tool called boring tool.
The operation is carried out when the exact size drill bit is not available.
A hole of nearest size is drilled and then a single point cutting tool called boring
tool is used to increase the size of the hole to the required dimension.

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Bench or Sensitive Drilling Machine

Bench drilling machines are used for drilling small holes at high speeds in small sized
workpieces. The diameter of the hole ranges from 1.5mm to 15mm. The machine is usually
supported on a work bench and hence the name bench drilling machine. The machine
consists of the following parts.

a) Base is a usually made from cast iron material and supports the vertical column. The base
is provided with holes to secure it firmly to the table/bench with the help of bolts and nuts.

b) Vertical column is a hollow steel pipe mounted rigidly on the base. It supports the drill
head and the worktable.

c) Worktable supports the workpiece to be drilled. It is usually provide with T-slots that
help the workpiece to be clamped rigidly on the table. The table can be raised or lowered,
and can be clamped to the vertical column at any desired position. This helps to
accommodate different sizes of workpiece on the table. The table can also be swivelled
around the vertical column to any desired position.

d) Drill head is located at the top end of the vertical column. It carries an electric motor and
a mechanism through which the spindle can be made to rotate, as well as slide up and down.
The top end of the spindle is connected to a stepped cone pulley which obtains power
(rotary motion) from the motor shaft through a v-belt arrangement. The speed of the
spindle can be varied by changing the belt position on the stepped pulley. The lower end of
the spindle carries a drill chuck to hold the drill bit rigidly during operation. The vertical
movement of the spindle and hence the drill bit, is controlled by the hand feed lever located
at the front end of the machine facing the operator.

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Radial Drilling Machine

a) Base is a large cast iron material on which is mounted a cylindrical vertical column. The
base is provided with T-slots, which help the workpiece to be clamped rigidly to the base of
the machine.
b) Vertical column is a long, cylindrical shaped part fastened rigidly to the base. The
column carries a radial arm that can be raised or lowered by means of an electric motor and
can be clamped to any desired position. The radial arm can also be rotated (swivelled) in a
complete circle around the column.
c) Drill head is mounted on the radial arm and carries a driving motor and a mechanism for
revolving and feeding (power feed) the drill bit into the workpiece. The drill head can be
moved horizontally on the guide ways provided in the radial arm, and can be clamped to any
desired position.
With the combination of the movements of radial arm and the drill head, it is possible to
move the drill bit and hence generate a hole at any desired position without moving the
workpiece.

Milling – Introduction
Milling is a process of shaping work materials by feeding the work material against a
multipoint rotating cutter. Milling can be used for producing flat, angular or curved surfaces
for cutting threads, toothed gears, keyways, slots and a wide variety of other operations.

Principle of milling or methods of milling

In milling the cutter is held in the spindle of the machine and made to rotate at
suitable speeds. The work piece is also held rigidly by a suitable device and is fed slowly
against the rotating cutter. The work piece can be fed in two different directing with respect
to the cutter rotation as up milling and down milling. In up milling, the work piece is fed in a
direction opposite to the direction of cutter rotation and in down milling, the work piece is
fed in the same direction as that of the rotating cutter.

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Up milling Down milling

Up milling (Conventional Milling) Down milling (Climb Milling)

[Link]
The work piece is fed in a direction The work piece is fed in the same
1. opposite to the direction of cutter direction as that of the rotating cutter.
rotation.
The material removal by each tooth The material removal by each tooth
2. starts with a minimum thickness and starts with a maximum thickness and
ends with a maximum thickness. ends with a minimum thickness.
Cutting force tends to lift the work off Cutting force tends to hold the work
3. the table, necessitating greater against the table, permitting lower
clamping forces. clamping forces.
It is difficult for efficient circulation of The coolant can easily reach the cutting
coolant. The cutter rotating in the zone. Hence, efficient cooling of the tool
4.
upward direction carries away the and work piece can be achieved.
coolant from the cutting zone.
It is preferred for rough cuts, especially Down milling produces better surface
for castings and forgings. finish. It is particularly used for finishing
5.
operations and small work like cutting
slots, grooves etc.

Classification of milling machines:

The milling machines are classified as follows:
1) Column and knee type milling machines.
a. Plain or horizontal milling machine.
b. Vertical milling machine.
c. Universal milling machine.
2) Bed type milling machine.
3) Planer type milling machine.
4) Special type milling machine.
a. Tracer controlled milling machine
b. CNC milling machine

Horizontal knee and column milling machine:

The principal parts of milling machines are
1) Base 2) column 3) Knee 4) Saddle 5) Table 6) Spindle

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Base:
The lower part of the machine is the base, upon which all other parts are mounted.
Base is usually a strong and a hollow part, which form the foundation of the machine.
The base also serves as a sump for the cutting fluid.
Column:
The column is a vertical hollow casting. The column is rigidly mounted over the base.
The column houses the spindle and bearing as well as the drive units (gears, clutches,
shafts and shifting mechanisms) for transmitting power from the electric motor to
the spindle at desired speeds.
The front face of the vertical column is provided with a square or dovetail type guide
ways on which the knee slides up and down.

Horizontal knee and column milling machine

Knee:
Knee is a casting that can be raised or lowered on the column face with the help of an
elevating screw.
The knee supports the saddle.
Saddle:
Saddle is mounted on knee and is provided with two slides (guide ways on its top
and bottom surfaces.
The lower slide fits the slide provided on top of knee and facilitates horizontal
movement of the saddle.
The upper slide provided on the saddle accepts the slide provided on the bottom
surface of the worktable.

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Work Table:
Work table is larger in size and rests on the saddle.
The bottom surface of the table has a dovetail slide that fits in the slide on the top
surface of the saddle. This arrangement facilitates the work table to be moved
longitudinally or at right angles to the movement of the saddle.
T-slots are provided on the top surface of the table to hold the workpiece or work
holding devices.
Spindle:
The spindle is a hollow shaft mounted on bearing supported by the column.
The spindle obtains power from the electric motor through a train of gears and
transmits it to the arbor.
The spindle is made hollow and tapered inside to accept standard arbors.
The milling cutter is mounted on the arbor.
Arbor:
The arbor is a shaft with a straight body and tapered shank. The tapered shank fits in
the taper hole of the spindle nose.
The straight end of the arbor is mounted in a bearing housed in the arbor supporting
bracket.
The milling cutter is mounted on the arbor which rotates about a horizontal shaft. It
is provided with spacers, which help in adjusting the position of the cutter.
Over arm:
It is mounted on the top face of the column.
It supports the yoke, which in turn supports the free end of the arbor, thereby
preventing bending or deflection of arbor under cutting loads.

Vertical Spindle Column and Knee Milling Machine:

The principal parts of milling machines are

1) Base 2) Column 3) Knee 4) Saddle 5) Table 6) Spindle

Vertical Spindle Column and Knee Milling Machine

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Spindle:
The spindle is located vertically, parallel to the face of the column and perpendicular
to the top of the work table.
The spindle is mounted in the spindle head and carries the cutter at its end.
The spindle head houses the motor and feed controls, and can be either fixed type or
swivelling type.
In fixed type, the spindle head is fixed, and hence the spindle remains vertical. The
spindle can be adjusted up and down to perform operations like grooving, slotting,
facing, drilling and boring.
While in swivelling type, the spindle head can be swivelled to any angle to the surface
of the worktable. This permits working on angular surfaces of the work pieces.

Milling operations

A milling machine is used to machine flat and angular surfaces, slots, key ways, to cut
irregular shapes and teeth, mill screw threads, drill and bore holes, etc.

Milling operations in horizontal mill

Plain or slab milling:

It is a method of producing flat surfaces on the work piece.
Here the cutter axis and work piece surface are parallel.
The cutter used in this operation is called plane or slab milling cutter.
It has straight or helical teeth cut on the periphery of a cylindrical surface.
The helical tooth cutter removes greater amount of material and produces a smooth
finish when compared to the straight tooth cutters.

Plane milling Slot milling

Slot Milling:
Slot milling is the process of cutting grooves or slots in the work piece.
The slot may be rectangular slot, T-slot, dovetail slot etc.
A side milling cutter is used for this operation.
Side milling cutters have cutting edges on the both sides as well as on periphery.

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CNC - Introduction

CNC Machines
CNC is a short name for Computer Numerical Control. It refers to a computer controller
that accepts a program or a set of instruction and stores it in the memory of the computer,
which in turn controls the working of the machine tool. The program can be modified or
edited while it is in the computer memory as and whenever required thereby offering a
great degree of flexibility in manufacturing.

Basic components of CNC Machine

The external appearance of a CNC machine is very similar to that of a NC machine,
however the limitations of a NC machine is successfully overcome with the various
components incorporated in a CNC machine. CNC machine basically consists of three
components. These include:
a) Computer/Part program and program input device
b) Controller unit, also called machine control unit (MCU), and
c) Machine tool

Components of CNC System

a) Part program and program input device

In CNC machine, the part program is done either manually on punched tapes and then
fed in to the memory of the computer, or with the aid of various computer software’s that
automatically generates the program required to produce the desired part.
b) Machine Control Unit (MCU)
In modern CNC technology, the machine control unit consists of a microcomputer and
related control hardware that stores the program of instructions and executes it by
converting each command into mechanical actions of machine tool, one command at a time.
The MCU includes system software, calculation algorithm, and transition software to
convert the part program into a usable format for the MCU. It also acts as a feedback
controller for precise positioning of machine table or spindle.
c) Machine Tool
The machine tool performs the actual machining operation, and can be of any type like
lathe, drilling machine, milling machine, etc. The machine tool mainly consists of work table
and tool spindles whose motion can be controlled accurately by the driving system that
receives commands from the MCU. A part with the desired features is produced by the
machine tool.

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CNC Machining Centers

A machining center can be defined as a CNC machine tool, controlled by a computer
program that can perform multiple machining operations like milling, drilling and boring
operations by a variety of tools with Automatic Tool Changer (ATC) unit. Based on spindle
orientation the machining centers are classified into Horizontal machining centers (HMC)
and Vertical Machining centers (VMC).

Advantages of CNC machines

a) Higher productivity.
b) High degree of accuracy and reduction of scrap.
c) Easy to modify the design of components.
d) Reduced inventory and Reduced floor space requirements.
e) Less skilled/trained people can operate CNC’s unlike manual lathes/milling
machines etc which required skilled operators.
f) Increased machine utilization
g) Reduced labour cost. One person can supervise many CNC machines.

Disadvantages of CNC machines

a) High initial cost of equipments & High maintenance cost
b) Requires skilled programmers
c) Fewer workers are required to operate CNC machines compared to manually
operated machines. Investment in CNC machines can lead to unemployment.

Applications of CNC machines

a) CNC machining is used in producing medical implants, such as orthopedic implants
like hip and knee replacements, dental implants and spinal implants.
b) CNC machines are used for various machining operations like shearing, flame or
plasma cutting, punching, laser cutting, forming, and welding.
c) CNC machines plastics into components like dashboard panels.
d) CNC machining is widely used in the defense industry for producing high-precision
components for aerospace systems, weapon systems, armor, vehicle components.
e) CNC machines produce aircraft, spacecraft, and satellite parts in the aerospace
industry.
f) CNC machining produces intricate parts for various applications such as turbines, oil
and gas drilling equipment, nuclear power plant components, and solar panel frames.

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3D Printing

3D printing or additive manufacturing is the construction of a three-dimensional

object from a CAD model or a digital 3D model.

It can be done in a variety of processes in which material is deposited, joined or solidified

under computer control, with material being added together (such as plastics, liquids or
powder grains being fused), typically layer by layer.

Types of 3D Printing
Stereolithography (SLA)
Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)
Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)
Digital Light Process (DLP)
Multi Jet Fusion (MJF)
PolyJet.
Direct Metal Laser Sintering (DMLS)
Electron Beam Melting (EBM)

Steps in 3D Printing process

Step 1: Conceptualization & CAD.
CAD models that fully describe the external geometry are required for all AM parts.
Step 2: Conversion to STL.
Step 3: Transfer to Machine.
Step 4: Setup.
Step 5: Build.
Step 6: Part Removal.
Step 7: Post-processing.
Step 8: Application.

Stereo Lithography (SLA or SL) Systems:

SL is the first process ever developed in rapid prototyping field with the meaning of
3D printing. Charles Hull developed and patented the completed system in 1986. Then he
founded 3D systems, Inc, to develop commercial applications of the process.
Stereolithography (SLA or SL also known as vat photo polymerisation, optical
fabrication, photo-solidification, or resin printing) is a form of 3D printing technology used
for creating models, prototypes, patterns, and production parts in a layer by layer fashion
using photochemical processes by which light causes
chemical monomers and oligomers to cross-link together to form polymers.
SL builds plastic parts or objects a layer at a time by tracing a laser beam on the
surface of a vat of liquid photopolymer. This class of materials originally developed for the
printing and packaging industries, quickly solidifies wherever the laser beam strikes the
surface of the liquid.

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Principle of Stereo Lithography:

1) Parts are built from a photo-curable liquid resin that cures when exposed to a laser
beam (basically, undergoing the photo polymerization process) which scans across
the surface of the resin.
2) The building is done layer by layer, each layer being scanned by the optical scanning
system and controlled by an elevation mechanism which lowers at the completion of
each layer.

Working:

SLAs have four main parts: a tank that can be filled with liquid plastic
(photopolymer), a perforated platform that is lowered into the tank, an ultraviolet
(UV) laser and a computer controlling the platform and the laser.
In the initial step of the SLA process, a thin layer of photopolymer (usually between
0.05-0.15) is exposed above the perforated platform. The UB laser hits the perforated
platform, “painting” the pattern of the object being printed.
The UV curable liquid hardens instantly when the UB laser touches it, forming the
first layer of the 3D-printed object.
Once the initial layer of the object has hardened, the platform is lowered, exposing a
new surface layer of liquid polymer. The laser again traces a cross section of the
object being printed, which instantly bonds to the hardened section beneath it.
This process is repeated again and again until the entire object has been formed and
is fully submerged in the tank.
The platform is then raised to expose a three-dimensional object. After it is rinsed
with a liquid solvent to free it of excess resin, the object is baked in an ultraviolet
oven to further cure the plastic.
Objects made using stereo lithography generally have smooth surfaces, but the
quality of an object depends on the quality of the SLA machine used to print it.

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The amount of time it takes to create an object with stereo lithography also depends
on the size of the machine used to print it. Small objects are usually produced with
smaller machines and typically take between six to twelve hours to print. Larger
objects, which can be several meters in three dimensions, take days.

Advantages of 3D Printing/Additive Manufacturing:

a) Design complexity and freedom:

One key benefit of using AM is the ability to easily fabricate complex shapes. AM also offers
the freedom to design parts and innovate.
b) Speed:
One can do complex parts within hours, with limited human resources. The only machine
operator is needed for loading the data and the powder material, start the process and finally
for the finishing. During the manufacturing process, no operator is needed.
c) Customization:
3D Printing processes allow for mass customization, personalize products according to
individual needs and requirements.
d) Tool less:
In industrial manufacturing, for low volume to medium volume production it is costlier,
time-consuming and labor-intensive, thus AM can eliminate the need for tool production.
e) Extreme lightweight design:
AM enable weight reduction via topological optimization.
f) Sustainable/environmentally friendly:
3D printing technology provide environmental efficiencies in terms of the manufacturing
process by utilizing up to 90% of standard materials, and therefore, creating less waste.
g) No storage cost:
Since 3D printers can print products as and when needed, and does not cost more than mass
manufacturing, no expense on storage of goods is required.
h) Increased employment opportunities:
Widespread use of 3d printing technology will increase the demand for designers and
technicians to operate 3D printers and create blueprints for products.

Disadvantages of 3D Printing/Additive Manufacturing:

a) Accuracy and surface finish:

The surface finish and dimensional accuracy is low compared to other manufacturing
methods.
b) Material cost:
Cost of most materials of additive systems is greater than that of those used for traditional
manufacturing.
c) Material properties:
A limited choice of materials is available. (e.g., tensile strength, yield strength, and fatigue)
have not been fully characterized.
d) Limitations of raw material:
In traditional manufacturing, there are a wide range of materials wherein an additive
manufacturing technology can work with only a few.
e) Skills:
Good skills are required for application design and to set process parameters.

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f) Cost of printers:
Te cost of a 3D printer is not feasible for purchase by the average householder. Also different
3D printers are required in order to print different types of objects.
g) Limitations of size:
3D printing technology is currently limited by size constraints. Very large objects are still not
feasible when built using 3D printers.

Applications of 3D Printing:

a) The most common application for 3D printing is rapid prototyping.

b) 3D printing is used to manufacture moulds for making jewellery, and even the
jewellery itself.
c) 3D printing is used to make aircraft parts lighter, stronger, and more cost-efficient.
d) 3D printing can also be used to make laptops and other computers and cases.
e) BMW and General Motors have adopted 3D printing for both prototype and
production parts, including components for high-performance vehicles that require a
blend of strength, durability, and light weight.
f) In medical sciences, 3D printing is being used to customize implants. In the future,
organs and body parts may be created using 3D printing techniques.
g) Among the items made with 3D printers are shoe designs, furniture, tools, tripods,
gift and novelty items, and toys.

*****

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