Applied Physics for ME streams

Module -2: ELASTICITY 2022 scheme

Ref: Engineering Physics by SP Basavaraju/ RK Gour& SL Gupta VIJAYA TALAPATADUR

ELASTICITY
Elasticity Stress-Strain Curve, Stress hardening and softening. Elastic Moduli, Poisson’s ratio,
Relation between Y, n and σ (with derivation), mention relation between K, Y and σ, limiting
values of Poisson’s ratio. Beams, Bending moment and derivation of expression, Cantilever and I
section girder and their Engineering Applications, Elastic materials (qualitative). Failures of
engineering materials - Ductile fracture, Brittle fracture, Stress concentration, Fatigue and factors
affecting fatigue (only qualitative explanation), Numerical problems.
Pre requisites: Elastcity,Stress & Strain
Self-learning: Stress-Strain Curve

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 Applied Physics for ME streams
Module -2: ELASTICITY 2022 scheme
Ref: Engineering Physics by SP Basavaraju/ RK Gour& SL Gupta VIJAYA TALAPATADUR

Introduction:
If the body does not change in its dimension when it is acted by the external forces then such
body is said to be rigid body. But practically, there is no perfect rigid body, all the bodies get
deformed more or less under the action of the external forces. The external forces which cause to
deform the body is called deforming forces. The internal force is due to relative displacement of
the molecules tends to regain its original form (size and shape) of the body on the removal of
deforming forces. Such internal force is called restoring force. When deforming force is applied
to a body then molecules of body tend to displace from their equilibrium position. As a result of
this, internal force developed within the body which tends to bring the molecule to its
equilibrium position. This internal force which is developed in the body is called elastic force or
restoring force.

Elasticity and Plasticity

Definitions, stress, strain and types of stress and strain

 Deforming forces: The forces that deform or tend to deform a body are called deforming
forces. The body which undergoes change in dimensions is called a deformed or strained
body.
 Elasticity: The property of the by virtue of which tends to recover its original form on the
removal of deforming forces is called elasticity and the body is said to be elastic.
If a body resists deformation and recovers its original form completely on the removal of
the deforming forces, such body is said to be perfectly elastic.
 Plasticity: The property of the body by the virtue of which it cannot regain its shape and
size after the deforming forces are withdrawn is called Plasticity and the body is said to
be Plastic.
 Note: There is no perfectly elastic and perfectly plastic body exists in nature. We only
consider a nearest approach to the perfectly elastic and perfectly plastic body. The
example of nearest approach to perfectly elastic is quartz fiber and perfectly plastic is
putty

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Ref: Engineering Physics by SP Basavaraju/ RK Gour& SL Gupta VIJAYA TALAPATADUR

 Stress: The restoring force per unit area is called Stress. It has the unit of pressure (Pa) or
Nm-2.
Mathematically stress cab expressed as
Restoring force F
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = =
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴
 Strain: Strain is a measure of change in dimension produced in a body under the
influence of deforming force. The body which undergoes change in dimensions is called
a deformed or strained body.
Change in the body may be its length, volume and shape.
Strain can be defined as the ratio of change in dimensions of the body to its original
[Link] has no SI unit.
change in dimension of the body
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 =
𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦

 Types of stress and strain: Depending upon the type of applied force the body gets
deformed in respect of applied stress. There are three types of stresses and strains.
1. Tensile stress and Linear strain.
2. Bulk stress and Volume strain
3. Shearing stress and Shearing strain

 Tensile stress or Normal stress and Linear strain or tensile strain

It is the force acting normally to the cross sectional area of the body. It produces a linear
[Link] F be the deforming force and 𝐴 be the area of the cross-section then
Its unit is N/m2
L
appied force F
𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = =
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑎 𝑙
:
In this case body which undergoes change in length (dimensions)of the body. 𝑙
Linear strain can be defined as “the ratio in change length to the original length.
If 𝑙 is the change in length and L is the original length, then

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 Applied Physics for ME streams
Module -2: ELASTICITY 2022 scheme
Ref: Engineering Physics by SP Basavaraju/ RK Gour& SL Gupta VIJAYA TALAPATADUR

change in length
Linear strain = =
original length

Bulk stress or volume stress:

The force acting normally and uniformly to the entire surface of the body is called
volume stress., it produces volume strain.
appied force F
𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = =
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑎
v
V

The body undergoes a change in its volume (however the shape is retained in case of
solid bodies). If v is the change in volume to an original volume V of the body then,
change in volume
Volume strain = =
original volume

Shear stress or Tangential stress and Shear strain:

Thedeforming force parallel or tangentially to the surface per unit area is calledtangential
[Link] force applied tangentially to the surface of the body, the body gets sheared
through an angular deformation i.e relative displacement of the layers. This is called
shearing strain.
appied force F
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = =
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑎
Shearing strain= 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = =

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 Applied Physics for ME streams
Module -2: ELASTICITY 2022 scheme
Ref: Engineering Physics by SP Basavaraju/ RK Gour& SL Gupta VIJAYA TALAPATADUR

Stress-Strain Curve
Review of Hookes law, qualitative explanation of stress-strain curve
 HOOKE’S LAW:
Thefundamental law of elasticity was published by Robert Hooke in [Link]’s is the
relation between stress and strain.
For an elastic material the stress is proportional to the strain within the elastic limit. This
proportionality is called Hooke’s Law. Mathematically
stress α strain
Stress = modulus of elasticity X Strain
stress
𝐸𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 =
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
The constant of proportionality is called Elastic Modulus. The unit of Elastic Modulus is same as
stress 𝑁𝑚−2𝑜𝑟𝑃𝑎. Strain has no unit

 Stress vs Strain curve:

Consider a bar or wire of uniform cross section fixed at one end and loaded at the other.
The stress-strain relationship could be understood by making a plot of stress vs strain and
is called stress-strain diagram. It is as shown in the figure.

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Elastic limit: The maximum stress after an application of which the material is able to
regain its original position is called elastic limit.
Plastic limit: It is the property of the material which is in deformed state without fracture
on the removal of force or stress.

i) The region "OA" is the elastic region and Hooke’s Law is valid. The point
"A" is the "Proportionality Limit".
ii) Between the points "A" and "B" the material exhibits elastic behavior. But
Hooke’s Law is not valid. The point "B" is the elastic limit.
iii) Further for any point ’C’ the material possess permanent strain and plastic
behavior is observed. While unloading the dotted curve is traced.
iv) The point "D" corresponds to the maximum stress that the material can
withstand and is called "Point of ultimate strength".
v) At the point "E" material breaks and the body no more exists in single piece.
The point "E" is called "Fracture Point". The stress corresponding to the point
"E" is called "Breaking Stress".
______________________________________________________________________________

Stress hardening and softening

Explain them along with examples
 Strain Hardening:
The strain hardening is the process of making a metal harder by plastic deformation.
Consider a material stressed and deformed beyond elastic limit and then unloaded
gradually. The curve traced in the graph is "BC" with residual strain "OC".

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Ref: Engineering Physics by SP Basavaraju/ RK Gour& SL Gupta VIJAYA TALAPATADUR

If the loading is repeated again in steps and the graph is plotted with 𝐶 as origin curve 𝐶𝐵
is observed. Thus the material exhibits proportionality to a higher value of stress. Hence
the material can withstand higher stresses and is known as strain hardening.
Example: copper-zinc alloy, brass, used for ammunition cartridges and the aluminum-
magnesium alloys in beverage cans.

 Strain Softening:

In case of certain materials, when they are stressed beyond elastic region the stress-strain
curve takes negative slope. Since the material can withstand only reduced stresses in this
region it is called strain softening.
Example: Typically observed at a continuum level in damaged quasi brittle materials,
including fibre reinforced composites and concrete.

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 Applied Physics for ME streams
Module -2: ELASTICITY 2022 scheme
Ref: Engineering Physics by SP Basavaraju/ RK Gour& SL Gupta VIJAYA TALAPATADUR

Elastic Moduli
Define 3 moduli, mention the relation between 3 moduli, mention relation between K, Y
and σ, limiting values of Poisson’s ratio

 Elastic Moduli: Any elastic deformation is analyzed under three categories such as
Young’s modulus, bulk modulus, rigidity modulus as discussed below.
i) Young’s modulus ( Y or q or E):
It is defined as the ratio of tensile (Longitudinal) stress to longitudinal (Linear) strain
within elastic limit, and is denoted by Y. or q or E.
Let F is the force, 𝑎 be the cross sectional area, L is the original length of the wire and
𝑙 is the change in length then Young’s modulus can be expressed as,
Longitudin al stress (𝑭/𝒂)
Y= = (𝒍/𝑳) N/m2
Longitudin al strain

ii) Bulk modulus K:

It is defined as the ratio of compressive stress to volume strain within elastic limit,
and is denoted by K
compressive stress 𝑃
𝐾= =
volume strain volume strain
Here, p is the pressure applied, [Link] ‘F’ is the force applied uniformly and
normally on a surface area ‘𝑎’of the volume, then pressure is p=‘F/ 𝑎’
If ‘v’ is the change in volume produced in an original volume V,
then volume strain is =v/V,
The bulk modulus K can be written as,
F/a 𝑃𝑉
𝐾= =
v/V v
Bulk modulus is referred to as incompressibility and hence its reciprocal is called
compressibility (strain per unit stress).

iii) Rigidity Modulus η:

It is defined as the ratio of Shearing stress to Shearing strain within elastic limit, and is
denoted by η. Rigidity modulus can be written as

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Shearing stress
𝐾=
Shearing strain

If Tangential force ‘F’ is applied along the parallel to the surface of the body, it causes
angular deformation or shearing strain θ,
F
Hence tangential stress = and shearing strain is θ =(𝒍/𝑳)
a
Shearing stress 𝑭/𝒂
𝐾= =
Shearing strain (𝒍/𝑳)

Poisson’s ratio
Define elongation and compression strain (Strain Coefficients), mention the relation
between them. Define Poisson’s ratio
 Strain Coefficients:
i) Longitudinal (elongation) Strain Coefficient (𝛼):
It is defined as the longitudinal strain produced per unit stress.
longitudinal strain
Elongation Strain Coef icient, α =
𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 stress
The longitudinal strain is given
longitudinal strain = 𝑙/𝐿
If 𝑇 is the applied stress, then the longitudinal strain coefficient is given by
(𝑙/𝐿) 𝑙
α= =
𝑇 𝐿𝑇
Longitudinal or elongation Strain in terms of α can be written as
𝒍= 𝛂𝐋𝐓

ii) Lateral Strain Co-efficient (𝛽)

The lateral strain produced per unit stress is called lateral strain coefficient, it is
denoted by𝛽

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lateral strain
Lateral Strain Coef icient, β =
𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 stress
If a material of cylindrical shape is subjected to stretching, then the length
increases and the diameter decreases. Hence lateral strain is observed and is
defined as the ratio of change in diameter to original diameter.
Let ‘d’ is the change in diameter and ‘D’ be the original diameter, then lateral
strain is given by
𝑑
lateral strain =
𝐷
If ‘T’ be the applied stress, then
(𝑑/𝐷)
Lateral Strain Coef icient, β =
𝑇
𝑑
Lateral Strain Coef icient, β =
𝑇𝐷
Lateral strain in terms of 𝛽 can be written as
𝐝= 𝛃𝐓𝐃
.
 Poisson’s ratio σ:
It is defined as the ratio of Lateral Strain to Longitudinal strain within the elastic limit
and is denoted by σ.
𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝜎=
longitudinal strain
𝑑/𝐷
𝜎=
𝑙/𝐿
(𝑑/𝑇𝐷)
𝜎=
(𝑙/𝑇𝐿)
𝛃
𝛔=
𝛂

 Expressions for Y, k and η in-terms of 𝛼 and 𝛽:

i) Relation between Y and α

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𝑌=

ii) Relation between η ,𝛼 and 𝛽:

1
η=
2(𝛼 + β)
iii) Relation between K, 𝛼 and 𝛽:
1
𝐾=
3(𝛼 − 2β)

Relation between Elastic Moduli

 Relation between Young’s modulus Y, rigidity modulus η and Poisson’s ratio σ:

Consider ABCD is a face of a cubic with unit length. Let a tangential force applied F
along the surface AB in the direction shown in figure. The cube will be sheared to the
shape of A' B' C D through an angle θ (small). Now the diagonal AC will be contracted to
A'C and diagonal BD will be elongated to B'D.
Let 𝛼 and 𝛽 the longitudinal and lateral stress coefficients.
Let T be the tangential stress produces elongation strain and compression strain then
linear strain along BD = αT
lateral strain normal to DB=βT
Then total strain along the diagonal DB is

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𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑁𝐵
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = = = (𝛼 + 𝛽)𝑇
𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝐷𝐵
𝑁𝐵
= (𝛼 + 𝛽)𝑇 − − − − − 1
𝐷𝐵
Length of the each side of the cube =L then diagonals AC=DB = 2√𝐿
AA' =B B' = 𝒍 (sinceAB surface is sheared to A' B' ), and

∠𝐵𝐵 𝑁 = 45 , 𝑐𝑜𝑠∠𝐵𝐵 𝑁 = 𝑁𝐵 = BB 𝑐𝑜𝑠∠𝐵𝐵 𝑁 = BB cos 45 = =

√ √

∴ 𝑁𝐵 =
√

Equation can be written as √

= (𝛼 + 𝛽)𝑇
√

𝑙
= (𝛼 + 𝛽)𝑇
2𝐿
𝑙
= 2𝑇(𝛼 + 𝛽)
𝐿
𝑇 1
=
𝑙 2(𝛼 + 𝛽)
𝐿
From the figure, θ= and 𝜂= is called rigidity modulus, then above equation can be
written as
𝟏
𝜼=
𝟐(𝜶 + 𝜷)
1
𝜂=
𝛽
2𝛼 1 +
𝛼
1/𝛼
𝜂=
𝛽
2 1+
𝛼
𝑌
𝜂=
2(1 + 𝜎)
𝒀 = 𝟐𝜼(𝟏 + 𝝈)
The above equation is the relation between young’s modulus, rigidity modulus and Poisson’s
ratio.

 Relation between Young’s modulus Y, bulk modulus K and Poisson’s ratio σ:

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Consider a cube of unit volume. Let lengths of the cube are denoted by OX, OY, OZ along x ,y
and z axes respectively.
Then volume of the cube is = OX * OY* OZ =1m 3
Let TxTx, TyTy and TzTz are the pairs of equal and oppositely directed tensile stresses applied to
the cube along the x, y and z axes respectively. It produces volume strain. Let OX' , OY' ,OZ' be
the increase in lengths of the cube.
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 =
original volume
Change in volume = New volume – Original volume
Change in volume = (OX' * OY' * OZ') – (OX * OY* OZ)
Let OX' be the increase in length of OX.
Consider αT is the linear strain along force direction and βT is lateral strain perpendicular to
force direction, the length of OX increases while along OY and OZ contraction.
Consider a cube along X-axis, let Tx produces increase in length along OX is = αTx
Typroduce contraction in OX is βTy
Tz produce contraction in OX is βTz
Then total increase in length in OX is, OX' = 1 + αT x – βTy - βTz
Similarly, along Y direction, increase in length OY' = 1 + αT y – βTz + βTx
And along Z- direction, increase in length OZ' = 1 + αT z – βTx +βTy
Then new volume of the cube is = OX' * OY' * OZ'
= (1 + αTx – β(Ty +Tz)) * (1 + αTy – β(Tz+ Tx)) *(1 + αTz – β(Tx +Ty))
The higher powers of α and β and their products are neglected (such as α 2,β2 ,αβ), then
= {1 + αTy – β(Tz+ Tx) + αTx – β(Ty +Tz)} *(1 + αTz – β(Tx +Ty))

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= 1 + αTz – β(Tx +Ty) +αTy – β(Tz + Tx)+ αTx – β(Ty +Tz)

= 1+ αTx+ αTy+ αTz – βTx– βTy – βTz – βTx– βTy– βTz
= 1+ α (Tx+Ty+Tz) - 2β(Tx+Ty+Tz)
If Tx=Ty=Tz =T (stress) then
Total new volume is = 1+ α (3T) - 2β(3T)
= 1+ 3T (α - 2β)
Original volume of the cube =1 (unit volume)
Change in volume = New volume – Original volume
Change in volume is =1+ 3T (α - 2β) -1
Change in volume =3T (α - 2β)
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 3T (α − 2β)
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = = = 3T (α − 2β)
𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 1
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑇 1
𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝐾 = = =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 3T (α − 2β) 3T (α − 2β)
𝟏
𝑲=
𝟑 (𝛂 − 𝟐𝛃)
1
𝐾=
3α [1 − 2(β/α)]
1/α
𝐾=
3 (1 − 2σ)
𝒀
𝑲=
𝟑 (𝟏 − 𝟐𝛔)
𝒀 = 𝟑𝐊 (𝟏 − 𝟐𝛔)
The above equation is the relation between young’s modulus, bulk modulus and Poisson’s ratio.

 Relation between K, η and Y:

From the elastic moduli and Poisson’s relations, we have,

𝑌 = 2𝜂(1 + 𝜎)
𝑌
= 2(1 + 𝜎) − − − 1
𝜂
And 𝑌 = 3K (1 − 2σ)
𝑌
= (1 − 2σ) − − − 2
3K
Adding equations 1 and 2,
𝑌 𝑌
+ = 2(1 + 𝜎) + (1 − 2σ)
𝜂 3K

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𝑌 𝑌
+ = 2 + 2𝜎 + 1 − 2σ
𝜂 3K
𝑌 𝑌
+ =3
𝜂 3K
3𝐾𝑌 + 𝑌𝜂
=3
3𝐾𝜂
𝑌(3𝐾 + 𝜂)
=3
3𝐾𝜂
𝟗𝑲𝜼
𝒀=
𝟑𝑲 + 𝜼

 Relation between K, η and σ:

From the elastic moduli and Poisson’s relations, we have,

𝑌 = 2𝜂(1 + 𝜎) − − − 1
𝑌 = 3K (1 − 2σ) − − − 2
substitute equation 1 in equation 2,
2𝜂(1 + 𝜎) = 3K (1 − 2σ)
2𝜂 + 2𝜂𝜎 = 3K − 6Kσ
6Kσ + 2𝜂𝜎 = 3K − 2𝜂
σ(6K + 2𝜂) = 3K − 2𝜂
(3K − 2𝜂)
σ=
(6K + 2𝜂)

 Limiting values of Poisson ratio

Consider the relations
𝑌 = 2𝜂 (1 + 𝜎)
𝑌 = 3K (1 − 2σ)
Equation the above relations
2𝜂(1 + 𝜎) = 3K (1 − 2σ)
• If 𝜎> 0.5 then LHS will be "+Ve" and RHS will be "-Ve".
• If 𝜎< −1 then LHS will be "-Ve" and RHS will be "+Ve".
• Since both sides represent Young’s Modulus they must result in the same positive
value.

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• Hence for both sides to be "+Ve" the 𝜎 can take values in the range −1 <𝜎< 0.5. •
Since 𝜎 cannot take negative values 0 <𝜎< 0.5.
• Thus the value of 𝜎 rages from 0 to 0.5.

Beams
Definition of beam, types of beams, qualitative discussion of bending and bending moment.
Mention the expression for bending moment (No derivation).

 Definition of beam:
A beam is a bar or rod of uniform cross section whose length is much greater as
compared to its other dimensions.
These are used in buildings to support roofs and in bridges to support the load of vehicles
passing over them.

 Assumptions
i) The weight of the beam is negligible compared to the load applied.
ii) There are no shearing forces.
iii) The cross section and thus geometrical MI of the beam remains unaltered
. iv) Curvature of the beam is [Link] moment of inertial remains unchanged.

 Neutral surface and Neutral axis

Whenever a beam is subjected to load it is bent longitudinally. The longitudinal filaments
on the convex side of the beam are elongated and those on concave side are compressed.
In between these filaments there is a filament which is neither elongated nor compressed

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and is called Neutral filament. The length of the neutral filaments remains unchanged
even after loading the beam.
Neutral surface: Neutral surface is the elemental layer of the beam which does not
undergo any change in its dimensions when the beam is subjected to bending within the
elastic limit.
Neutral axis: Neutral axis is a longitudinal line of intersection of neutral surface and
plane of bending.

 Types of Beams
Beams are classified into the following five types.
i) Simple beam: A Simply supported beam is a bar resting upon supports at its ends and
this is the most commonly used.
ii) Continuous beam: A Continuous beam is a bar resting upon more than two supports
iii) Cantilever: A Cantilever beam is a beam whose one end is fixed and other end is
free.
iv) Fixed beam: A Fixed ended beam is beam whose both ends are fixed.
v) Overhanging beam: A Overhanging beam has its one or both ends stretching out past
its supports.

 Bending Moment and Expression

Consider a cantilever beam of uniform cross-section which is bent by applying load. The
moment of applied couple due to which the beam bends longitudinally is called Bending
Moment.
The opposing moment developed in the material due to elasticity is called Restoring
Moment.

 Expression for bending moment of the beam:

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Consider a beam of uniform cross section. Consider three layers 𝐴𝐵, 𝐶𝐷 and 𝐸𝐹 be three
layers. Before applying the load 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐶𝐷 = 𝐸𝐹. The beam bent by applying load and is
as shown in the figure.
On bending 𝐴𝐵 extends to 𝐴 𝐵 and 𝐸𝐹 contracts to 𝐸 𝐹 . The layer 𝐶𝐷 is the neutral
surface. The length 𝐶𝐷 forms an arc of a circle of radius 𝑅 and subtends and angle 𝜃 at
the center. The layer 𝐴 𝐵 is concentric to 𝐶𝐷 with radius 𝑅 + 𝑟.
From the figure 𝐶𝐷 = 𝑅𝜃 and 𝐴 𝐵 = (𝑅 + 𝑟)𝜃.
The change in length of the layer 𝐴𝐵 is given by
𝐴 𝐵 − 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴 𝐵 − 𝐶𝐷
𝐴 𝐵 − 𝐴𝐵 = (𝑅 + 𝑟)𝜃 − 𝑅𝜃
𝐴 𝐵 − 𝐴𝐵 = 𝑟𝜃
Thus the change in length is given by
𝐴 𝐵 − 𝐴𝐵 = 𝑟𝜃
The original length 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐶𝐷 = 𝑅𝜃, Thus the linear Strain is given by

Linear strain = = =

Let 𝑌 be the Young’s Modulus of the material. According to Hooke’s Law,

Young’s modulus 𝑌 =

𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝑌 ∗ 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

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𝑟
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝑌 ∗
𝑅
𝐹 𝑟
=𝑌∗
𝑎 𝑅
𝑟
𝐹=𝑌∗ 𝑎
𝑅
Where, ‘a’ be the cross section area of the beam
Moment of Force of a layer with respect to neutral layer is given by
Couple or Moment of the force = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 ∗ ⊥ 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 from the neutral axis.
MomentofForce = 𝐹 ∗ 𝑟
𝑟
MomentofForce = 𝑌 ∗ 𝑎∗𝑟
𝑅
𝑌
= ∗𝑟 𝑎
𝑅
The Bending moment is the moment of force acting on the entire beam and is given by

Bending moment of the beam = ∑ ∗𝑟 𝑎

Bending moment of the beam = ∑(𝑎𝑟 )

= I

∑(𝑎𝑟 ) = I is called geometric moment of inertia.

Bending moment of the beam = I

Thus the expression for Bending Moment.

 Geometrical MI of Rectangular and Circular Beams

Ig varies with geometric shape,

for rectangular I = where b and d are the breadth and thickness of the beam,

1. Bending moment for cross section of the rectangular beam is =

For circular beamI = ,

2. Bending moment for cross section of the circular beam is =

Where r is the radius of the beam.

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Cantilever and I section girder and their Engineering Applications,

Concept of cantilever and I girders. Their applications (qualitative)

 Cantilever and their applications:

Definition: The cantilever is a beam fixed at one end and free at the opposite end.
Structure: Typically, it is firmly attached to a flat vertical surface like wall and extends
from it outwards. It distributes the load back to support that force against a flash and
shear stress.

Applications: Cantilever construction allows overhanging structures without additional

supports and bracing. A cantilever beam allows the creation of a bay window, some
bridges, balconies, truss, or slab.

 I Section Girdersand their applications

Definition I-shaped girders are made like the I-beam section and are composed of couple
of load bearing flanges and web.
Structure and Purpose: The top and bottom flanges of the "I" shape provide horizontal
support and resistance against bending, while the vertical web connects the two flanges
and provides resistance against shearing forces. The "I" shape of steel girders and rails
provides structural efficiency, material efficiency, and cost-effectiveness.

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Applications: They are used in building of pulls, fly overs etc. They are also used in
construction of public shades and public places.

Elastic materials, Failures of engineering materials

Mention different elastic materials, Fundamentals of fracture, qualitative discussion of
ductile and brittle fracture, stress concentration and concentration factor.
 Types of Elastic Materials:
i) Linear Elastic Materials: On loading exhibits a linear graph between of stress vs
strain passing through the origin. Eg. Metals.
ii) Non-Linear Elastic Material: On loading Exhibits non-linear graph of stress vs
strain passing through the origin. Eg. Large strain rubber or Plastic
iii) Cauchy-elastic materials: In this material the stress at each point is determined
only by the current state of deformation with respect to an arbitrary reference
configuration.
iv) Hyper-elastic materials: They are conservative models that are derived from a
strain energy density function.
v) Hypo-elastic Materials: Hypo-elasticity implies that stress is not derivable from
an energy potential.
vi) Elastomers: Rubbery material composed of long chain-like molecules (polymers)
that are capable of recovering their original shape after being stretched to great
extents. eg. Polyurethane.
vii) Some Examples of Elastic materials are Thermo-Plastic Elastomer, Silicone
Rubber.
viii) Elastin, Poly Amide (Nylon), Natural Gum, Wool, Lycra.

 Elastic Fracture
A material experiencing fatigue develops cracks which grow over cycles and the
materials undergoes fracture and hence called fatigue failure. Thus the material(part) fails

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during the operation. Hence fatigue is an important concern in the design of some
mechanical instruments and devices like Engine Pistons, Suspension springs etc.
Fracture is classified into two types. • Brittle fracture • Ductile fracture.

Brittle Fracture: Brittle fracture means fracture of material without or with very small
plastic deformation before fracture.
Examples: Rock, concrete, and cast iron. Such materials are called brittle materials.
Ductile Fracture: Ductile fracture is a type of failure seen in readily deformable
(malleable) materials and is characterized by extensive plastic deformation or necking
that occurs before the material finally cracks or breaks apart.
Examples: Aluminium , Copper. Such materials are called ductile materials.
 Stress concentration:
A stress concentration is a point in a part where the stress is significantly greater than its
surrounding area. Stress concentrations occur as a result of irregularities in the geometry
or within the material of a component structure types of Elastic Materials that cause an
interruption of the stress flow. These interruptions typically arise from discontinuities
such as holes, grooves, notches and fillets. Stress concentrations may also be caused by
accidental damage such as nicks and scratches.
 Concentration Factor
A stress concentration factor (𝐾𝑡) is a dimensionless factor that is used to quantify how
concentrated the stress is in a mechanical part.
It is defined as the ratio of the highest stress in the part compared to a reference stress
(Nominal Stress).

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S
k =
S

Fatigue failure
A brief discussion on factors affecting fatigue such as surface effect, design effect and
environmental effects.
 Fatigue failure or fatigue:
It is a type of mechanical failure that occurs in materials subjected to repeated loading
even when applied stress is below the material’s yield strength. It is characterized by
gradual development and propagation of cracks within the material, ultimately leading to
fracture. Thus the material experiences repeated strain and relief. During the course the
material experiences " Elastic tiredness" or "Elastic Fatigue".
 Factors affecting fatigue:
i) Surface Effect:There are always uneven machining marks on the machinated
surface. These marks are equivalent to tiny gaps, which cause stress concentration
on the surface of the material, thus reducing the fatigue strength of the material.
ii) Design Effect: Any notch or geometrical discontinuity can act as a stress raiser
and fatigue crack initiation site; these design features include grooves, holes,
keyways, threads, and so on. The sharper the discontinuity the more severe the
stress concentration.
iii) Environmental Effects: Two types of environment-assisted fatigue are thermal
fatigue and corrosion fatigue.
Thermal fatigue is normally induced at elevated temperatures by fluctuating
thermal stresses.
Corrosion Fatigue that occurs by the simultaneous action of a cyclic stress and
chemical attack is termed corrosion fatigue.

--------------------X---------------------X--------------------X-------------------X----------------------

Model Questions

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1. State Hooke’s Law and Explain Stress Vs Strain curve with the help of a neat sketch.
2. Discuss Strain Hardening and Softening.
3. Define Elastic Modulus and Explain the three types of Elastic Moduli.
4. Explain Longitudinal and Lateral Strain coefficients and hence define Poisson’s ration.
5. Derive the relation between y, n and 𝜎.
6. Discuss the limiting values of Poisson’s Ratio.
7. Define Beam and explain the classification of beams.
8. Define Bending Moment, Restoring Moment, Neutral Surface, Neutral Axis.
9. Derive an expression for the Bending Moment of a beam.
10. Describe Cantilever and I section Girder with the held of neat sketches.
11. Discuss the types of elastic material.
12. Elucidate the stress concentration and concentration factor.
13. Discuss the Surface, Design and Environment factors affecting Fatigue.

Numerical Problems
1. The Young’s modulus and rigidity modulus of steel are 18 x 10 10 Nm-2 and 8 x 1010 Nm-2
respectively. Find the bulk modulus and poison’s ratio of the steel.

2. A steel wire of length 2m has inner radius 1cm and outer radius 1.2 cm. Calculate the
elongation produced when it is stretched by force of 3N. Given the Young’s modulus of
steel is 18 x 1010 Nm-2.
3. One end of a wire with 2mm radius and 1.6m length is twisted through 24 0. Calculate the
angle of shear at a radial distance of 0.8mm from its axis.

4. A certain load produces a depression of 10mm at the free end of a cantilever. What will
be the depression if the length of the cantilever is doubled?

5. A gold wire of length 1m and 0.82mm in diameter elongates by 1.2mm when stretched
by a force 3.3N. If the Poisson’s ratio of gold is 0.36 find its Bulk modulus.

6. A brass bar of length 1m, 0.01 m2 in section is clamped horizontally. A weight of 1 kg

applied at the free end produces a depression of [Link] the young’s modulus of a
given material.

7. A circular disc is suspended from a wire of length 25cm and diameter 0.5mm. If the
period of torsion oscillations is 9.6s, calculate the rigidity modulus of the material of

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thewire. Given (Moment of inertia of the circular disc about an axis passing through CG
= 2.25 x 10-3Kg m2)

8. A rectangular bar of width 2cm, thickness 1cm and length 1.5m is supported at one end
andloaded with 2kg at the other end. If the young’s modulus of the material of the bar is
19.5x1018 Nm-2, find the depression produced at i) the centre and ii) the free end of the
beam.
9. A single cantilever of length 18cm, breadth 2.6cm and thickness 1mm is loaded with 50g
at the free end. Find the depression produced at the free end of the cantilever. (Given the
Young’s modulus of the given material is 21x10 10Nm-2.)

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