Chapter 7

DNA STRUCTURE, TRANSCRIPTION, TRANSLATION AND REPLICATION

At the end of this chapter, pre-service teachers are expected to:

1. Retell the story how the DNA structure was discovered;
2. Create a model of the DNA; and
3. Explain the concepts of DNA Replication, Transcription and Translation, and their
relevance.

DNA STRUCTURE

What do we already know about inheritance?

1. Inherited characteristics are determined by genes
2. Genes are passes from one generation to the next
3. Genes are part of a chromosome
4. Chromosomes are made of protein and DNA

The DNA (DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID) is the genetic material of organisms.

Who are The People Behind the Discovery of the DNA Structure?

1. ROSALIND FRANKLIN (1920-1958), King’s College in London. She used X-RAY

DIFFRACTION TECHNIQUES and suggested that the DNA has SPIRAL SHAPE.

2. MAURICE WILKINS (1916-2004) King’s College in London. He also used X-Ray

Diffraction Techniques and worked with Franklin. He later shared data with Watson
and Crick.

3. ERWIN CHARGAFF (1905-2002)

Columbia University, NY. He investigated
the composition of DNA. His findings by
1950 strongly suggested the base-pairings
of A-T & G-C.

CHARGAFF’S RULE: a rule in DNA that

there is equal quantity of ADENINE AND
THYMINE, and GUANINE AND
CYTOSINE.

4. JAMES WATSON (1928) & FRANCIS

CRICK (1916-2004) at Cavendish
Laboratory, Cambridge University. They
used the works of Franklin, Wilkins and
Chargaff to determine DNA’s shape.
 The DNA’s shape is a DOUBLE-HELIX STRUCTURE. Watson, Crick and Wilkins
were given the Nobel Prize in 1962 for their work.

The Structure of the DNA

The DNA has a DOUBLE-HELIX

STRUCTURE. A molecule of DNA is made up
of millions of tiny subunits called Nucleotides.
A Nucleotide serves as the basic unit of the
DNA

Each nucleotide consists of:

1. Phosphate group
2. Pentose sugar
3. Nitrogenous base

The phosphate and sugar form the

backbone of the DNA molecule, whereas the
nitrogenous bases form the “rungs”.
There are four types of NITROGENOUS
BASES:
1. Adenine (A)
2. Thymine (T)
3. Cytosine (C)
4. Guanine (G)

Each base will only bond with one specific base: ADENINE (A) with THYMINE
(T), and CYTOSINE (C) with GUANINE (G). Because of this complementary base
pairing, the order of the bases in one strand determines the order of the bases in the
other strand.

To crack the genetic code found in DNA we need to look at the sequence of bases.

The bases are arranged in triplets called codons. Example is shown below:

AGG-CTC-AAG-TCC-TAG
TCC-GAG-TTC-AGG-ATC

Ribonucleic Acid, like DNA, is nucleic acid. However, RNA structure differs from
DNA structure in three ways:

1. First, RNA is single stranded – whereas DNA is double stranded.

2. Second, the sugar in RNA is ribose; DNA has deoxyribose.
3. Finally, both DNA and RNA contain four nitrogenous bases but instead of thymine,
RNA contain a similar base called uracil (U). The uracil pairs with adenine. The
 major types of RNA include: messenger RNA (mRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA),
and transfer RNA (tRNA).

DNA, RNA and Protein Synthesis

The genetic material is stored in the form of DNA in most organisms. In humans,
the nucleus of each cell contains 3 × 109 base pairs of DNA distributed over 23 pairs of
chromosomes, and each cell has two copies of the genetic material. This is known
collectively as the human genome. The human genome contains around 30,000 genes,
each of which codes for one protein.

Large stretches of DNA in the human genome are transcribed but do not code for
proteins. These regions are called introns and make up around 95% of the genome. The
nucleotide sequence of the human genome is now known to a reasonable degree of
accuracy but we do not yet understand why so much of it is non-coding. Some of this
non-coding DNA controls gene expression but the purpose of much of it is not yet
understood.

The Central Dogma of Molecular Biology states that DNA makes RNA makes proteins.

The process by which DNA is copied to RNA is called transcription, and that by
which RNA is used to produce proteins is called translation.

DNA REPLICATION

Each time a cell divides, each of its double strands of DNA splits into two single
strands. Each of these single strands acts as a template for a new strand of
complementary DNA. As a result, each new cell has its own complete genome. This
process is known as DNA replication.

Replication is controlled by the Watson-Crick pairing of the bases in the template

strand with incoming deoxynucleotide triphosphates, and is directed by DNA polymerase
enzymes. It is a complex process, particularly in eukaryotes, involving an array of
enzymes. A simplified version of bacterial DNA replication is described in the figure in the
next page.
 DNA biosynthesis proceeds in the 5′- to 3′-direction. This makes it impossible for
DNA polymerases to synthesize both strands simultaneously. A portion of the double helix
must first unwind, and this is mediated by helicase enzymes.

The leading strand is synthesized continuously but the opposite strand is copied
in short bursts of about 1,000 bases, as the lagging strand template becomes available.
The resulting short strands are called Okazaki fragments (after their discoverers, Reiji
and Tsuneko Okazaki).

The following are the events while DNA copies itself:

1. An enzyme called helicase breaks the bond between nitrogenous bases. The two
strands of DNA split.
2. The bases attached to each strand then pair up with the free nucleotides found in
the cytoplasm.
3. The complementary nucleotides are added to each strand by DNA polymerase to
form new strands. Two new DNA molecules, each with a parent strand and each
with a new strand are formed. The DNA replication is known as semi-
conservative replication, because one of the old strands is conserved in each
new molecule.

Mistakes in DNA replication

DNA replication is not perfect. Errors occur in DNA replication, when the incorrect
base is incorporated into the growing DNA strand. This leads to mismatched base pairs,
or mispairs.

DNA polymerases have proofreading activity, and a DNA repair enzymes have
evolved to correct these mistakes. Occasionally, mispairs survive and are incorporated
into the genome in the next round of replication.
TRANSCRIPTION

Transcription is the process by which DNA is copied (transcribed) to mRNA,

which carries the information needed for protein synthesis. Transcription takes place in
two broad steps.

First, pre-messenger RNA is formed, with the involvement of RNA polymerase

enzymes. The process relies on Watson-Crick base pairing, and the resultant single
strand of RNA is the reverse-complement of the original DNA sequence.

The pre-messenger RNA is then "edited" to produce the desired mRNA molecule
in a process called RNA splicing.

The following events will help us understand transcription:

1. RNA polymerase enzyme binds and opens the DNA molecule that will be
transcribed.
2. As the DNA molecule opens, the RNA polymerase slides along the DNA strand
and links free RNA nucleotides that pair with the nitrogenous bases of the
complementary DNA strand. Hence, if the sequence of bases on the DNA strand
were CCG TTA CAT, the sequence of bases on the RNA strand would be GGC
AAU GUA.
3. When the process of base-pairing is completed, the RNA molecule breaks away
as the DNA strands rejoin. The RNA leaves the nucleus and goes to the cytoplasm.

TRANSLATION

In translation, each set of three nucleotides in an mRNA molecule codes for one
amino acid in a protein. This explains why each set of three nucleotides in the mRNA is
called a codon. Each codon specifies a particular amino acid.

For example, the fist codon which is, cytosine-guanine-uracil (CGU), instructs the
ribosome to put the amino acid arg (arginine) in the protein. The sequence of codons in
the mRNA determines the sequence of amino acids in the protein.

But how are the right amino acids added in the right sequence to match the
sequence of codons in the mRNA? The following events in translation can help you
understand the process:
1. As translation begins, mRNA binds to a ribosome. Then, tRNA molecules, each
carrying a specific amino acid, approach the ribosome. The tRNA anticodon pairs with
the fist mRNA (start) codon arginine-uracil-guanine (AUG), to form the initiation
complex. The two molecules temporarily join together.
2. Usually, the fist codon on mRNA is AUG, which codes for the amino acid methionine.
AUG signals the start of protein synthesis. Then, the ribosome slides along the mRNA
to the next codon.
3. A new tRNA molecule carrying an amino acid pairs with the second mRNA codon.
4. When the first and second amino acids are in place, an enzyme joins them by forming
a peptide bond between them.
5. As the process continues, a chain of amino acids is formed until the ribosome reaches
a stop codon (e.g., UAA, UAG, UGA) on the mRNA strand. The polypeptide chain is
released. Protein synthesis is complete.

Proteins such as enzymes are mostly amino acids chained together in a certain
order. Each group of three nucleotide bases represents a codon in a DNA or mRNA that
corresponds to a specific amino acid or a start/stop signal. This code is picked up by the
mRNA and is carried from the nucleus to the cytoplasm.

The codon has its complement anticodon in tRNA. Each amino acid that will form
the protein molecule to be synthesized is determined by the triplet code or codon on the
mRNA.

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