5.

1 The structure of the atom

What is an atom like?

The word ‘atom’ comes from a Greek word that means cannot be split. One
element consists of the same atoms, while different elements have different
atoms.

Atoms are made up of even smaller particles, called sub-atomic particles.

There are 3 kinds of particles that make an atom, protons, neutrons, and
electrons.

The proton and neutron are grouped closely

together in the center of the atom and they
form the nucleus of the atom. The electrons
move around the nucleus.

The three different particles in an atom have

different properties:

● Protons and neutrons have much more mass than the electrons. In
fact, electrons have almost no mass.
● protons and neutrons have the same mass.
● Protons have a positive electrical charge
● neutrons have no electrical charge.
● electrons have a negative electrical charge

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There is a lot of empty space between parts of the atom and it is
completely empty, there is nothing in it at all.

There is an attraction between the positive and negative charges from both
the protons and electrons. This is called electrostatic attraction and this is
what holds individual atoms together.

5. electrostatic attraction between protons and electrons

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The scientists behind the model of structure of the atom.

The solid sphere model.

Who? John Dalton When? Early 1800s

Substances were made of small

hard spheres called atoms, that
could not be divided into anything
smaller.

The plum pudding model.

Who? JJ Thomson When? Early 1900s

Upon discovering the electrons,

Thomson argued that electrons
were scattered throughout the
structure of the atom.

The nuclear model.

Who? Ernest Rutherford When? 1909-1911

After the famous gold foil

experiment, Rutherford introduced
the proton and nucleus.

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The planetary model.

Who? Niels Bohr When? 1913

Bohr assisted the discovery of

electrons by working on the
theoretical calculations.

He suggested that the electrons

orbit the nucleus in shells or orbits
that are at set distances from the
nucleus.

The atomic model.

Who? James Chadwick When? 1932

Chadwick proved that neutrons

exist within the nucleus of the atom.

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The quantum / wave mechanical model.

Who? Erwin Schrodinger When? 1926

This model theorizes that instead of

well defined circular orbits,
electrons orbit a nucleus in clouds .
The electrons within the clouds
behave like a wave instead of like a
single electron.

Scientists continue to work to improve our understanding of the structure of

atoms. For example, scientists from all over the world are using the Large
Hadron Collider in Switzerland to further understand the structure of matter.

Look at the gigantic size of the

tool used by the scientists to look
deep further into the smallest part
of substances that make up the
whole of our existence.

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 5.2 Purity
Pure elements

If an element is __________, it means that every one of its __________ is

exactly the __________. Pure elements are made of just one type of atom.
For example, pure gold is made of __________ atoms. However, an alloy
of gold may contain other metals such as __________ and __________ .

Gold

To measure the purity of gold we use the term __________ . Pure gold is
measured to be __________ carat. An alloy of gold that is for example 18
carat means it has __________ parts out of __________ that are gold. The
other __________ parts is made up of other metals such as __________
or __________ . To calculate the purity of an 18 carat gold as a
percentage, we do the following:

The photograph shows samples of gold with

different purity levels. Can you guess how
many carat each is?

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Silver

When silver is sold, it is usually marked with the number of parts per
__________ that are silver. So silver marked 925 has __________ atoms
out of __________ that are __________ and __________ atoms of some
other metals. Silver marked 900 is of __________ purity than that marked
925.

A silver ring is marked 925, what is its purity level as a percentage?

Diamonds

Diamonds are made from the element __________ that are arranged in a
particular way. Pure diamonds contain no other element, __________ and
__________ . If diamonds have other elements mixed in with the carbon
atoms, they can be different __________. For example:

● Yellow diamonds contain __________ atoms ( a few per million)

● Blue diamonds contain __________ atoms.
● Green diamonds contain __________, __________ or __________
atoms (1 per 1000)

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Seawater

Seawater is made up of water and various salts such as

____________________. If you want to obtain sodium chloride from
seawater, you can __________ off the water. However, sodium chloride is
not the only salt that is __________ in seawater. The other salts are shown
in the diagram below.

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 5.3 Weather and climate
What is weather?

Weather is the state of the ______________ and its __________ from

time to time. Weather can be similar each day in some places but it can
also __________ frequently in other places. When thinking about weather,
people include the combination of ______________, ______________,
______________, ______________, ______________, ______________ .

Describe the weather in each of the photographs.

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Careful measurements of the weather is important for:

Weather or climate?

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Climate is the ______________weather in an area that takes several years
to ______________. This means when we talk about climate, we talk about
the weather of a particular place over a much longer period, usually more
than 30 years. Unlike climate, weather can change within a few hours or
even minutes.

Weather is affected by factors such as ______________,

______________, ______________ and ______________. Meanwhile,
climate is only affected by two key factors, ______________ and
______________. The study of weather is called ______________ and the
study of climate is called ______________.

When people study climatology, they take information from the

______________ of weather that tell both the normal and the extreme
weather of a certain place.

Climate zones

The map shows

the main climate
zones on earth.

Each zone has a characteristic climate.

Climate zone Description of climate

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Polar
Temperate
Arid
Tropical
Mediterranean
Mountains /
tundra / taiga

5.4 Climate and ice ages

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Ice sheets

When Yuka was alive, and for thousands of years afterwards, the earth
was much ______________ than it is now because much area was still
covered by ice sheets. The map shows the parts of the world that were
covered by ice sheets 25000 years ago.

Glacial and intergracial periods

Since earth began, global temperatures have gone up and down. This can
be caused by a number of things including:

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_____________ _____________ _____________ ________________\

Yuka lived when the earth was mostly ______________. The condition
lasted until about 10000 years ago and is called a ______________ _____.
The word ______________ means ‘frozen’. Today, the earth is in an
______________ ______________ . The word ______________ means
‘between’. Over the last 450000 years, the earth’s climate has cycled or
swung between ______________ and ______________________ periods.

In an intergracial period, there is ______________ ice close to the North

and South poles. In a ______________ period, the ice spreads much
further ______________ from the North Pole further ______________ from
the South Pole. Scientists found that this cycle of clagial and intergracial
periods did not always happen. There were also long period of time when
earth was so warm that there was no permanent ice on its surface, not
even at the North or South poles. In between the warm periods, there were
cold periods with glacials and interglacials. These cold periods are called
the ______________ .

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How do scientists know the earth was colder in the past?

The photograph shows some _____

(big rocks) in California, USA.
Scientists believe that these rocks
got into their strange position
because they were carried away by
ancient ______________ .

Glaciers are ______________ of ice

that move slowly downhill. They are
formed from ______________ that over many years becomes compressed
into thick masses of ice. When the glaciers ______________ , the rocks
are left behind. Scientists also found scratches on the rock surfaces caused
by other rocks when dragged by the moving ice across them. Boulders are
the first clue that glaciers used to be present in parts of the earth that are
much warmer now. Other evidence is that in places that are now quite
warm, it is possible to find ______________ of animals and plants that
were adapted to lieve in very cold places.

Pollen evidence for glacial and interglacial periods.

When plants die, they normally ______________. In some conditions,

without ______________ and slightly acid, the decay is very slow and
therefore a ______________ may be formed. A peat bog is a
______________ ecosystem where partially decayed plant matter, called
______________ , accumulates over thousands of years.

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 Scientists can take samples of
the peat bog by using an auger
and remove a core of soil from it.
The core soil must be carefully
removed and kept in the correct
order as the different
______________ of peat
represent different ______________ of history. The deeper the peat, the
older it is.

Scientists then collected ______________ from different parts of the core

so that the plants from which the pollen came can be identified. Scientists
also know the type of ______________ that each kind of plant can live in,
therefore they were able to work out what the climate was like between
years ago and now.

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 5.5 Atmosphere and climate
The atmosphere

The atmosphere is a
______________ of
______________ above the
earth’s ______________. The
atmosphere we have today is very
different from the atmosphere when the earth formed billions of years ago.
Scientists think that the earth was formed about ______________ years
ago. The earth was very ______________ and it was molten for millions of
years. Then, as the earth cooled, a solid ______________ formed. There
were a lot more of ______________ activities. The volcanoes produced
______________ which formed the early ______________ . The
volcanoes also produced ______________ ______________ which
______________ into liquid water as the earth cooled. The water fell as
______________ and formed the first ______________ and ___________.

Changes to the atmosphere timeline

4000 million years ago

● Scientists think that the atmosphere contained mainly

______________ ______________ , little or no ______________,
small amounts of ______________ and ______________ gases and
some ______________ ______________.

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 ● This early atmosphere on earth was like the atmosphere on
______________ today. The temperature on Venus is very high on
the surface that it can melt lead.

3500 million years ago

● Micro organisms developed on earth and lived in the

______________. They used the ______________ ______________
in the atmosphere to make food and produced ______________ as a
waste product of this process.
● Plants developed over millions of years and began to grow on land.
Plants use ______________ ______________ to produce food by
the process of ______________
● The chemical process during photosynthesis is formulated as

● The level of ______________ in the atmosphere continued to rise.

200 million years ago

● By this time there was very little ______________ ______________

left in the atmosphere because most of the carbon had been used to
make the chemicals which are part of all living things.
● Carbon from dying organisms was ______________ back into the
environment and ______________.
● Some organisms that did not rot were turned into ______________
such as ______________ or ______________. The

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 ______________ was ______________ in the fossil fuels until they
are burned.
● Organisms with shells evolved around 600 to 400 million years
[Link] shells are made from ______________ ______________ .
Then these shelled animals died and fell to the bottom of the oceans
forming ______________ ______________ such as
______________. Carbon is also locked up in these rocks.

200 years ago

● The amount of _____________ _____________ started to _______.

● ______________ caused this rise as they started to
______________ the ______________ that had been locked up in
the earth for millions of years. They do this by burning
____________________________ such as ______________ and
______________ to keep themselves warm.
● This chemical process is formulated as:

● Greater ______________ of ____________________________ have

been increasing as humans burn more oil and coal for
______________ and ______________.
● Humans use a lot of ____________________________ to generate
______________ in power stations.
● Humans also caused__________________ which means the
process of ______________ down forests or large established trees
that use a lot of carbon dioxide in __________________.

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 ● Deforestation is done for several reasons such as

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

● Fewer trees means less of ____________________________ is

being used up so its level in the ______________ increases.
● Cattle eat grass and produce carbon dioxide and gases such as
______________ in their intestine. This also changes the
atmosphere.
● When limestone which consist of ____________________________
is used to make other products such as building ______________,
the carbon is released into the ______________.
● This chemical process is formulated as:

Carbon dioxide and other gases, such as ______________ act like a

blanket around the earth. These layers of gases keep the earth
______________ and produce the ____________________________.
Without the greenhouse effect, the earth would be much ______________.
However, increasing the leves of the greenhouse gases such as

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___________________________, ______________ and ______________
will also increase the ____________________________. This means the
earth’s climate become ______________ because the amouth of heat
escaping decreases. This is known as ____________________________.

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