Relativity: A Concise Guide
From Einstein’s special relativity to general relativity — core ideas, equations, and evidence.
Overview
Relativity is the framework describing space, time, and motion at high speeds and in strong
gravitational fields. Special Relativity (SR) applies in flat spacetime without gravity; General Relativity
(GR) extends the theory to curved spacetime and gravity. This guide summarizes the postulates, key
formulas, phenomena, and real-world implications.
1. Special Relativity (1905)
Postulates
• Relativity principle: The laws of physics are the same in all inertial frames.
• Constancy of light speed: Light in vacuum has the same speed c in all inertial frames.
Lorentz Transformations
Between frames moving at relative speed v along x, define β = v/c and γ = 1/√(1−β²). The
transformations are:
t' = γ ( t − v x / c² )
x' = γ ( x − v t )
y' = y, z' = z
Consequences
• Time dilation: ∆t' = γ ∆t (moving clocks tick slower).
• Length contraction: L' = L/γ (lengths along motion shrink).
• Relativity of simultaneity: simultaneity depends on frame.
• Velocity addition: w = (u + v) / (1 + uv/c²).
• Invariant interval: s² = c²∆t² − ∆x² − ∆y² − ∆z².
Events inside the light cone can be causally connected; those outside cannot (in SR).
The time-dilation factor γ grows rapidly as v approaches c.
Relativistic velocity addition keeps resultant speeds below c.
Relativistic Dynamics
Energy: E = γ m c²
Momentum: p = γ m v
Mass–energy relation: E² = (pc)² + (m c²)²
2. General Relativity (1915)
Equivalence Principle
Locally, a uniform gravitational field is indistinguishable from an accelerated frame. This leads to the
idea that gravity is not a force but the manifestation of curved spacetime.
Geometry and Motion
Mass–energy tells spacetime how to curve; curved spacetime tells matter and light how to move.
Freely falling bodies follow geodesics (paths that locally extremize proper time).
Einstein’s Field Equations
G_µν + Λ g_µν = (8πG/c■) T_µν
Curvature (left) equals stress–energy (right). In weak fields and low speeds, GR reduces to
Newtonian gravity.
Key Predictions
• Perihelion precession of Mercury (beyond Newtonian prediction).
• Deflection of light by gravity (gravitational lensing).
• Gravitational redshift and time dilation (clocks at different heights tick differently).
• Black holes and event horizons.
• Gravitational waves from accelerating masses.
Near Earth, stationary clocks at higher altitude run faster: dτ/dt = √(1 − 2GM/(rc²)).
Evidence
• Solar-system tests: planetary ephemerides, spacecraft tracking, lunar laser ranging.
• Historical: 1919 eclipse light-bending; modern: precision VLBI lensing.
• Binary pulsar timing matches energy loss via gravitational waves.
• Direct detections of gravitational waves (interferometers).
• Imaging black-hole shadows and strong-lensing arcs.
Everyday Consequences
• GPS: receivers correct for both special- and general-relativistic effects.
• High-precision timing, particle accelerators, and satellite dynamics.
Quick Reference (Formulas)
γ = 1 / √(1 − v²/c²)
Time dilation (SR): ∆t' = γ ∆t
Length contraction: L' = L/γ
Velocity addition: w = (u + v) / (1 + uv/c²)
Invariant interval: s² = c²∆t² − ∆x² − ∆y² − ∆z²
Gravitational redshift (Schwarzschild): dτ/dt = √(1 − 2GM/(rc²))
Appendix: Worked Examples
Example 1: Time dilation at 0.8c
β = 0.8 ⇒ γ = 1/√(1 − 0.64) = 5/3 ≈ 1.667. A moving clock accumulates only 1/γ ≈ 0.60 seconds for
each 1 second in the rest frame.
Example 2: Velocity addition
A spacecraft moving at u = 0.7c fires a probe forward at v = 0.6c (both measured in the craft frame).
Observer’s frame speed: w = (u + v)/(1 + uv/c²) ≈ (1.3c)/(1 + 0.42) ≈ 0.9155c, safely below c.
Example 3: Gravitational time dilation between ground and 20,000 km altitude
Using Earth parameters, dτ/dt at ground ≈ 0.999999999304, at 20,000 km ≈ 0.999999999832.
Difference ≈ 0.53 ppb; clocks higher up tick faster.
Example 4: Energy–momentum relation
A 1 GeV/c particle with rest mass 0.5 GeV/c² has total energy E = √[(pc)² + (mc²)²] = √(1² + 0.5²) GeV
≈ 1.118 GeV.
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