Chapter 1

The Study of Learning

Learning involves acquisition and modification of knowledge, skills, strat-

egies,beliefs, and behaviors. As a fundamental process, learning takes many
forms. On a rather simple level, children learn that2 x 2 : 4 and that d is
the fourth letter of the alphabet. More complex forms of learning involve
solving long division problems and locating main ideas in [Link] addition
to cognitive and language skills, children learn motor skills (riding a bicy-
cle, kicking a football) and social skills (interacting with peers, leading a
group discussion).
This book focuses on human learning-how it occurs, which factors
influence it, and how its principles apply in educational settings. The human
capacity for learning is truly remarkable. Compared with the elementary
behaviors animals learn, human learning is more rapid, extensive, and
complex. The power and diversity of human learning are especially evident
in schools.
Although everyone agrees that learning is important, there are differ-
ent views on the causes, processes, and consequences of learning. These
differences are examined in the chapters that follow. A central feature of
this text is its emphasis on learning in educational contexts. We begin by
defining learning and examining the types of situations to which learning
principles apply.
 THE STUDY OF LEARNING

LEARNING DEFINED
No definition of lcarning is uniformly accepted by theorists, researchers,
a n d e d u c a t i o n a l p r a c t i t i o n e r s . M a n y d e f i n i t i o n s , h o w e v e r ,e m p l o y c o m m o n
critcria to dcline learnins. The followins statement incorporates these
cri teri a:
Leantirtgis an enduring changein behavior,or in the capacity to behave
in a given fashion, which results from practice or r'ltherforms of experi-
e n c c .( S h u e l l ,1 9 8 6 )
One criterion for defining learning is behavioral change, or change in
behavioral capacity. We use the label "learning" when a person becomes
able to do or is capablc of doing something different from what he could at
an earlier point in time. Learning involves dcveloping new behaviors or
m o d i f y i n g e x i s t i n g o n c s . S t u d e n t l c a r n i n g i s a s s e s s e db a s e d o n w h a t s t u -
dcnts write, how they answcr questions, what they verbalize, and so forth.
Thc notion of a change in thc capacity to bchave in a new fashion is included
in the dcfrnition bccause pcople may acquire knowledge without demon-
strating it whcn learning occurs. Observational learning is an important
t v p e o f l c a r n i n g ( s e e t h c d i s c u s s i < - r on f M o d e l i n g P r o c e s s e si n C h a p t e r 4 ) .
A second critcrion used to dcline learning is that thc behavioral cl-rangc
c n d u r c s o v e r t i m e . T h i s a s p e c l o f t h c d e l i n i t i o n e - x c l u d e st e m p o r a r y b e h a v -
ioral changes broughl about by such factors as drugs, alcohol, fatigue, and
i l l n c s s . A t t h c s a m c t i m e , b c h a v i o r a l c h a n g c s d o n o t h a v e t o l a s t f < - rlre n g t h y
periods 1o bc classilicd as lcarncd, peoplc forget [Link] is debatable how
long changcs must cndurc to bc classified as lcarned, but most theorists
a s s u m e t h a t m < - r m c n t a r yc h a n g c s o n l y l a s t i n g a f c w s e c o n d s a r e n o t e x a m -
ples o[ learning.
A t h i r d c r i t e r i o n l o r d c l i n i n g l c a r n i n g p r o c c s s e si s t h a t l c a r n i n g o c c u r s
t h r o u g h p r a c t i c c o r o t h c r f o r m s o f e x p c r i c n c e ( e . g . ,o b s e r v i n g o t h e r s ) . T h i s
crite:rion exclucles bchavioral changes that sccm to bc genetically deter-
m i n c d , f o r c x a m p l c , s u c h s p c c i c s - s p e c i f l cb c h a v i o r s a s b i r d s b u i l d i n g n e s t s ,
tadpolcs swimming, and moths flying loward lighr. Even with such behav-
iors, howcver, thc clislinction is not cntirel-v clcar cut. Spccies mav bc pre-
disposcd to act in givcn ways, but the actual dcvelopmcnt of the particular
behaviors depcnds on a rcsponsive cnvironment. Monkeys'cxpressions of
n r a t c r n a l b e h a v i < , rpr r e s u m a b l y a r e i n s t i n c t i v e , b u t t h e s e b e h a v i o r s a r c d e -
velopcd in femalcs through thcir having had nr;rmal contact with thcir
mothcrs (an cnvironmental factor) (Harlow & Harlow, 1966).
The same considerations apply to such human maturational changes
in behavior as crawling, walking, and talking. The maturational process
predisposes the organism to different types of behaviors, but the actual
behaviors expressed involve learning (Bandura, 1986). Language provides a
good example. The human vocal apparatus matures so that it can produce
sounds, but the actual sounds (words) produced are learned from interac-
 LEARNINGTHEORYAND RESEARCH

t i o n s w i t h o t h e r s . C h i l d r e n r a i s e d b y a n i m a l s i n t h e w i l d e r n e s s p o s i j e s sn o
human language and develop it slowly only with much tutoring (Lenneberg,
1967).

LEARNING THEORY AND RESEARCH

This section reviews the roles of theory and research in the study of learning.
Some general functions of theory are discussed, along with important as-
p e c t so f t h e r e s e a r c h p r o c e s s , i n c l u d i n g e t h i c s .

Functions of Theory
Theoriesare scientifically acceptable sets of principles offered to explain
phenomena. They provide frameworks [Link] environmental ob-
servations (Suppes, 1974) and serve as bridges between research and edu-
cation. Without theories, research findings would simply be disorganized
collections of data. For example, research shows that peer models do not
always facilitate children's achievement and social behaviors compared
w i t h m o d e l s d i s s i m i l a r i n a g e ( S c h u n k , 1 9 8 7 ) .O n i t s o w n , t h i s c o n c l u s i o n
doesnot help teachers decide when to employ peer models. However, linking
this research finding with social cognitive learning theory can indicate
when teachers should use peer models.
Theories reflect environmental phenomena and generate new research
through the formati on of hltpotheses,or assumptions that can be empirically
tested. Hypotheses can be cast as if-then statements: "If we do X, then Y
s h o u l do c c u r . " T h e f o l l o w i n g h y p o t h e s i s c o u l d b e t e s t e d i n a r e s e a r c h s t u d y :
"I[we praise students when they work hard, then they should persist longer
at the task than students who are not praised for hard work." Hypotheses
supported by research data strengthen a theory. When hvpotheses are not
supported by data, the theory may have to be revised.
When we investigate an area in which there is little theory to guide us,
we may formulate objectives or questions to be answered rather than hy-
potheses. Regardless of whether we are testing hypotheses or asking ques-
tions, we need to specify the research conditions as precisely as possible.
Since research forms the basis for theory development and has valuable
implications for teaching, we examine here the process of conducting
research.

Conducting Research
In specifying the research conditions, we ask the following questions: Who
will the subjects (participants) be? Where will the study be conducted?
What measures will be collected? What procedures will be employed? We
must define precisely the phenomenon we are studying. Using operational
 THE STUDYOF LEARNING

definitions, we specify the operations or procedures used to measure phe-

nomena. Assume that we want to give students a pretest on some content,
provide instruction, and follow with a posttest. Our operational definition
of learning is the change in the number o[ correct test answers (posttest
minus pretest). If we are interested in the rate of learning, we measure the
time it takes students to master the [Link] addition to defining learn-
ing, we need to specify other variables used in our study.
In experimenlal rescarch, investi gators systematically vary conditions
(independent variables) and observe changes in outcomes (dependent varia-
b l e s ) .A s s u m e t h a t i n v c s t i g a t o r s e x p o s c d s t u d e n t s t o p c c r m o d e l s o r t o a d u l t
models (independent variables) and then measured student learning (de-
pendent variables). If using peer models resulted in greater learning, and if
the researchers could rule out the influence of any extraneous factors, they
could conclude the obvious: Exposure to peer models caused a greater gain
in achievement than exposure to adult models.
R e s e a r c h e r s a r e n o t a l w a y s c o n c e r n e d w i t h c a u s e - e f f e c tr e l a t i o n s h i p s .
Correlational research deals with relationships between variables, but it
cannot specify cause-effect relationships. A researcher may hypothesize
that student achievement is positively correlated with (related to) attitudes:
Students who achieve at a higher level express more positive attitudes
t o w a r d t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r . T o t e s t t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p , r e s e a r c h e r sm i g h t g i v e
students an achievement test and an attitude survey,statistically correlat-
ing the scores tt-r determine the nature and strength of the relationship.
Correlational research, however, cannot determine whether higher achieve-
ment causes a positive attitucle or vice versa. Either direction is possible,
and the variables might well influence each other. Correlational research is
especially valuable in clarifying the complexities o[ learning and in sug-
gesting further direction for research.

Laboratory and Field Studies

Learning research studies are conducted in laboratories as well as in the
field where participants work, live, play, go to school, and so forth. Much
laboratory psychological research during the first half of the twentieth
century used human subjects as well as infrahuman species such as mon-
keys, dogs, and rats. Today, much learning research is conducted in field
settings, although laboratory research also remains popular.
Advantages and disadvantages exist in each type of research setting.
The experimental laboratory of'fers a high degree of control over extraneous
f a c t o r s . D i s t r a c t i o n s a r e m i n i m a l o r n o n e x i s t e n t : n o r i n g i n g t e l e p h o n e s ,n o
one to interrupt the experiment, and no windows to look out of. The light,
t e m p e r a t u r e , a n d s o u n d c a n b e c o n t r o l l e d . A l l n e c e s s a r ye q u i p m e n t i s r e a d -
ily available and can be left in place for the duration of the experiment.
 LEARNING THEORY AND RESEARCH

Such control is not possible in the field. Schools are noisy and filled with
activity. It often is difficult to find space to work. There inevitablv are
distractions: Students walk by, teachers interrupt, bells ring, announce-
ments are made over the public address system, and fire drills are held. The
s p a c em a y b e t o o b r i g h t o r t o o d a r k , t o o h o t o r t o o c o l d . I t a l s o m a y b e u s e d
for other purposes, so researchers may have t<tset up their equipment each
time they work. These extraneous influences may affect the results of an
experiment.
Field research has the advantage of being conducted where people
t y p i c a l l y l e a r n . I t s l i n d i n g s a r e h i g h l v g e n e r a l i z a b l e : R e s e a r c h e r so u g h t t o
be able to apply their results with some confidence to similar settings. In
contrast, laboratory research findings are less generalizable: Laboratory
r e s e a r c h e r su s u a l l y a p p l y t h e i r f i n d i n g s t o f i e l d s e t t i n g s w i t h l e s s c o n f i -
[Link] research has yielded many important findings on learn-
ing processes,and researchers often attempt to replicate laboratory findings
in field settings.
Choosing the laboratory or the field depends on the purpose of the
r e s e a r c h ,t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f s u b j e c t s , t h e c o s t , a n d t h e u s e o f t h e r e s u l t s . B y
choosing the laboratory, researchers gain control but lclse some generaliz-
a b i l i t y . W h e n u s i n g a f i e l d s e t t i n g , r e s e a r c h e r s n e e d t < -m r inimize potential
e x t l - a n e o u si n f l u e n c e s s o t h a t t h e y c a n b c r e a s o n a b l y c e r t a i n t h a t t h e i r
r e s u l t s a r e v a l i d . A n y r e s e a r c h s t u d y h a s l i m i t a t i o n s . R e s e a r c h e r sn e e d t o
c o n s i d e rn o t o n l v t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e i r s t u d i e s b u t a l s o t h e p o t e n t i a l l i m i t a -
tions and the steps needed to address them.

Research with Human Subjects

It is the responsibility of investigators to protect the welfare of every person
involved in research projects. Formal guidelines fcrrthe protection of human
subjects have been promulgated by the U.S. Department of Health and
Human Services and by the American Psychological Association (1982).
M a j < l rc < - r n s i d e r a t i o n a
s re summarized in this section.
Participation in projects must be voluntary. Researchers must obtain
informed consent from all subjects unless the appropriate authorities spe-
cilically waive these rights or the participants are legally or physically
incapable of giving consent. The latter subjects are considered to be "at
risk." Children's legal rights, for example, are assigned to their parents or
guardians. Researchersusing children as subjects must obtain permission
from the parents or guardians. They must also acknowledge that children
h a v er i g h t s a s r e s e a r c h p a r t i c i p a n t s . U n l e s s t h e c h i l d r e n a r e n o t c a p a b l e o f
giving assent as determined by the appropriate research review committee,
their assent should be gained by explaining the project in language they
can understand. Such protections also are applicable to other at-risk re-
 THE STUDYOF LEARNING

search populations, for example, subjects with physical disabilities (e.g.,

patients with brain damage) and prisoners.
Participants do not abdicate any rights by consenting to be research
subjects. They have the right to withdraw from a research project at any
time or refuse to participate without any loss of benelits to which they
otherwise would be entitled. Subjects also have the right to receive appro-
priate professional care; to enjoy privacy and confidentiality in the use of
personal information; and to be free from undue embarrassment, discom-
fort, anxiety, and harassment. Safeguarding information about participants
that has been obtained in the course of an investigation is the obligation of
the investigator.
Universities and other organizations conducting research have estab-
lished committees to review all research proposals involving human sub-
iccts. These cornmittees have representatives from the organizational units
conducting research. In reviewing proposals, committees consider the fac-
tors shown in Table 1.1
Methodological requirements of some projects may require deception
or involve stress to subjects. Prior to conducting such studies, the investi-
gator must determine whether the use of such techniques is justihed by the
project's prospective scientific <-rp r ractical benefit <lr whether alternative
nondeceptivc and nonstressful procedures would be adequate. Studies in-
volving stress and deception are evaluated by human subjects committees
in the same fashion as any other study. The central concerns are protecting
t h e r i g h t s < , rsf u b j e c t s a n d d e t e r m i n i n g t h e a n t i c i p a t e d b e n e f i t s a n d r i s k s .
When anxiety-provoking or deceptive procedures are employed, investiga-
tors must ensurc that participants are provided with an adequate expla-
nation (debriefing) as soon as possible (i.e.,on completion of the project). If
subjects require further services (e.g., counseling), investigators must be
prepared to provide such services.

LEARNING THEORY ISSUES

Most theorists could accept in principle the definition of learning given at
the beginning of this chapter. When we move beyond the definition, however,
we find that theorists have different perspectives on several issues. The
answersto the following issuesare gcrmane to each of the theories covered
in this book.

How Does Learning Occur?

A basic issueconcerns the process whereby learning occurs. In discussing
this and the remaining issues,we distinguish between behavioral and cog-
nitive theories of learnine . Behavioral theories view learnins as a chanse in
 LEARNING THEORY ISSUES

TABLET.I
Concernsfor human subjects in research studies.

Concern Explanation

Subjects'rights Subjects' welfare considered carefully for each project

Procedures presenting undue risks to subjects eliminated
Appropriate safeguards and emergency measures provided
Subjects' confi dentiality preserved
Subjects' mental and physical well-being protected
Personal anguish, embarrassment, questions of conscicnce
minimized
Reasonablerisks Risks reasonablein relation to anticipated bcncfits
Human subjecls not to be [Link] poorlv clesigncd
studies
Informed Subjects informed of [Link] and prt-rceduresincluding
c()nsent risks and bencfits
Risks explained in language subjects can understand
Informed consent obtained from all subjects
O n l y h u m a n s u b . i e c t sr e v i e w c o m m i t t c e c l r n w a i v e i n l b r m e d
consent

t h e f o r m o r f r e q u e n c y o f b e h a v i o r a s a c o n s e q u e n c eo f e n v i r o n m e n t a l e v en t s .
B e h a v i o r a lt h e o r i e s c o n t e n d t h a t t h e l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s i n v o l v e s t h e l o r m a t i o n
o f a s s o c i a t i o n s b e t w e e n s t i m u l i a n d r e s p o n s e s .T h e l e e r r n e r ' se n v i r o n m e n I
is of tantamount importance. [n Skinner's (1953) view, a response to a
s t i m u l u s b e c o m e s m o r e o r l e s s p r o b a b l e d e p e n d i n g o n t h e c o n s e q u e n c e so f
t h e r e s p o n s e : R e i n f o r c i n g c o n s e q u e n c c s m a k e r e s p < - r n s em s ore probable,
w h e r e a sp u n i s h i n g c o n s e q u e n c e s m a k e t h e m l e s s l i k e l y .
C o g n i t i v e l h e o r i e - ss t r e s s t h c a c q u i s i t i o n o l ' k n o w l e d g e z l n d c o g n i t i v e
structures. According to this view, learning is ar mental activity that is
inferred based on behavi<,[Link] theor-iesfbcus <-rnthc mental proccss-
i n g o f i n f b r m a t i o n . K n o w l e d g e a c q u i s i t i < - r ni n v o l v es r e h e a r s i n g , c o c l i n g , a n d
storinginformation in memory; relating new information to infbrrnation in
memory; and retrieving infbrmation from memory when it is neecled.
How learning occurs has important implications for education. Behav-
ioral theories imply that teachers ought to arrange environmental condi-
t i o n s s o t h a t s t u d e n t s c a n m a k e t h e p r o p e r r e s p o n s e s t < ts t i m u l i . C o g n i t i v e
theories emphasize making knowledge meaningful and helping learners
o r g a n i z ea n d r e l a t e i t t o k n o w l e d g e i n m e m o r y . I n s h o r t , h o w l e a r n i n g o c c u r s
 THE STUDYOF LEARNING

affects not only the structure and presentation of materials but also the
types of student activities.

Which Factors Influence Learning?

Behavioral and cognitive theories acknowledge that learner (person) and
environmental variables influence learning but differ in the relative empha-
sis given to these variables. For example, behavioral theories stress such
environmental factors as the arrangement of stimuli and the consequences
(reinforcements, punishments) of given behaviors. Learning requires that
responses be performed. Behavioral theories assign less emphasis to learner
variables than do cognitive theories. However, one learner variable-devel-
opmental status- is considered important because it can constrain learn-
ing. For instance, short people cannot dunk a basketball, and mental
Iimitations hinder learning of complex skills. Learning is possible when the
learner's biological equipment is adequate.
Cognitivc theories acknowledge the role of environmental conditions
as facilitators of learning. Teachers' explanations and demonstrations of
concepts serve as environmental cues for students. Student practice of skills,
along with corrective fccdback, promotes learning. At the same time, cog-
nitive theories contend that instructional features alone cannot fully ac-
count for students' learning (Pintrich, Cross, Kozma, & McKeachie, 1986).
Key elements arc how learners attend to, rehearse, transform, code, and
storc informalion. The way learners mentally process information deter-
mines the what and how of learning.
Cognitive theories emphasize the role of learners' thoughts, beliefs,
attitudes, and values (Winne, 1985). For example, learners who doubt their
abilitics to learn may not properly attend to the task or may work halfheart-
e d l y o n i t , t h u s r e l a r d i n g l e a r n i n g ( S c h u n k , 1 9 8 9 ) .B e h a v i o r a l t h e o r i e s d o
not deny these mental activities exist, but rather contend that they do not
explain learning.

What Is the RoIe of Memory?

Learning theories differ in how they view human memory. Traditional be-
havioral theories typically did not include memory as a research focus.
Snme behavioral theorists conceived of memory in terms of establishing
neurological connections. Other theorists discussed the establishment of
habits or responses with little attention to how these were stored by the
individual for future use. Most behavioral theories viewed forgetting as a
function of nonuse of a response over time.
Cognitive theories assign a more prominent role to memory. Informa-
tion processing theories equate learning with encoding, that is, storing
 LEARNINGTHEORYISSUES

knowledge in memory in an organized, meaningful fashion. Information is

stored in memory in verbal form; many theorists believe that information
is also stored as images. Forgetting is the inability to retrieve information
from memory because of interference, memory loss, or inadequate cues to
accessinformation.
How a theory views the role of memory has important implications for
teaching. Behavioral theories typically posit that periodic, spaced reviews
of behaviors maintain their readiness in learners' repertoires. Cognitive
theories assign a prominent role to memory, stressing that teachers ensure
that learners organize knowledge in memory for subsequent access and for
relating it to other data previously acquired.

How Does Tiransfer Occur?

Iiansfer refers to knowledge being applied in new ways or situations (e.g.,
with different content). Transfer also concerns how prior learning affects
new learning. Without transfer, all learning would be situationally specific.
Behavioral theories stress that transfer is a function of identical or
similar features (stimuli) among situations. Behaviors generalize the com-
mon elements in situations. Cognitive theories postulate that transfer is a
function of how information is coded in memory. Transfer occurs when
learners understand how to apply knowledge in different contexts. The uses
of knowledge must be stored in memory either with the knowledge itself or
cross-referenced under different topics in memory that indicate types of
situations to which the knowledge is applicable. Situations need not share
common features. The key is the learners' belief that the knowledge may
prove useful in a situation. Teachers should adapt instructional procedures
to reflect their views of transfer.

Which llpes of Learning

Are Best Explained by the Theory?
Theories attempt to explain various types of learning but differ in their
ability to do so (Bruner, 1985). Although professionals disagree, behavioral
theories seem to explain best the simpler forms of learning that involve
associations (e.g., memorizing multiplication facts and foreign language
words). Because they emphasize mental structures, cognitive theories ap-
pear more appropriate for complex forms of learning (solving mathematical
word problems, drawing inferences from text).
I am not suggesting that there are no commonalities among various
types of learning. Learning to read is different from learning to play the
violin in many ways, but both benefit from attention, effort, and persistence.
 10
THE STUDYOF LEARNING

One challenge for future research is to specify the similarities and differ-
ences among different forms of learning.

LEARNING THEORY AND EARLY PHILOSOPHY

The remainder of this chapter addresses precursors of current learning
theories, whose roots extend far into the past. The problems addressed by
current researchers are not new but rather reflect a universal desire for
people to understand themselves and others in their world.
F r o m a p h i l o s o p h i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e , l e a r n i n g c a n b e d i s c u s s e du n d e r t h e
heading of epistemology, the study of the origin, nature, limits, and methods
of knowledge. How can individuals know? How can they learn something
new? Whence does knowledge arise? The complexity of how human beings
learn is clearly illustrated in the following excerpt from Plato's (427?-347?
u.c.)Meno:
I know Meno, what you mean. . . . Y<ruargue that a man cannot enquire
cither ab<-rut that which hc knows, or about that which he doesnot know;
for if he knows, he has [Link] to enquire; and if not, he c:rnnot;for he
d o e sn o t k n o w t h e v e r y s u b j c c ta b o u t w h i c h h e i s t o e n q u i r e .( 1 9 6 5 p
, . 16)
Two positions on the origin of knowledge and its relati<-rnship to the
external environment are rationctlism and empiricism. In varying degrees,
thcse positions are rec<-rgnizable
in current learning theories.

Rationalism
Retionalism refers to the idea that knowledge derives from reason without
a i d o f t h e s e n s e s .T h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n m i n d a n d m a t t e r , w h i c h f i g u r e s
prominently in rationalist views of human knowledge, can be traced t<r
P l a t o . P l a t o d i s t i n g u i s h e d k n o w l c d g e a c q u i r e d v i a t h e s e n s e sf r o m k n o w l -
e d g e g a i n e d b y r e a s < , r nH . is view of knowledge can be summarized as fol-
lows: Material ttrings in the world-houses, trees, automobiles, anci so
f o r t h - a r e r e v e a l e d t o p c o p l e v i a t h e s e n s e s .H u m a n s a c q u i r e i d e a s , o n t h e
other hand, by reason or by thinking about what they already know. People
have ideas about the world, and they learn ("disc<-rver") these ideas by
r e f l e c t i n g u p o n t h e m . R e a s < t ni s t h e h i g h e s t f a c u l t y , b e c a u s e t h r o u g h r e a s o n
people learn abstract ideas. The true nature of houses, trees, and automo-
biles can be known only by reflecting upon the ideas of houses,trees, and
automobiles.
Plato escaped from his dilemma concerning how humans learn by
assuming that true knowledge, or the knowledge of ideas, is innate and is
brought into awareness through reflection. To Plato, then,learning is recal-
ling what exists in the mind. Information acquired via the senses-by ob-
 ll
LEARNING THEORY AND EARLY PHILOSOPHY

s e r v i n g ,l i s t e n i n g , a n d t o u c h i n g - c o n s t i t u t e s r a w m a t e r i a l s , n o t i d e a s . T h e
mind is innately structured to reason, providing meaning tcl disorganized
incoming sensory in[<-rrmation.
Centuries later, the rationalist doctrine was evident in the writings of
R e n dD e s c a r t e s ( 1 5 9 6 - 1 6 5 0 ) ,a F r e n c h p h i l o s o p h e r a n d m a t h e m a t i c i a n . D e s -
cartes employed doubt as a method of inquiry. By doubting, he arrived at
conclusions that were absolute truths, that is, that were not subjecl to
doubt. The fact that he could doubt led him to the belief that the mind
( t h o u g h t )e x i s t s a s r e f l e c t e d i n h i s f a m o u s d i c t u m , " I t h i n k , t h e r e f o r e I a m . "
Through deductive reasoning, or reasoning from general premises to spe-
cilic instances, he proved the existence of God and concluded that ideas
arrived at through reason must be true.
Like Plato, Descartes established a mind-matter dualism, although
t h e l a t t e r ' s c o n c e p t i < - r nw a s d i f f e r e n t : T h e e x t e r n a l w o r l d i s m e c h a n i c a l , a s
are the actions of animals. People are distinguished in their ability to rea-
[Link] human soul, or the capacity for thought, influences the body's
mechanical actions, but the body acts on the mind by bringing in seusory
e x p e r i e n c e sA . l t h < - r u g hD e s c a r t e s p o s t u l a t e d d u a l i s m , h e a l s o h y p o t h e s i z e d
a type of mind-matter interactionism.
The rationalist perspective was further extended by Lnmanuel Kant
(1724-1804),a German philost-rpher. Kernt addresscd mind-nratter dualism
i n h i s l 7 8 l b o o k , C r i t i q u e o f - P t t r eR e a s o n .K a n t n o t e d t h a t t h e e x t e r n a l w o r l d
is disordered yet is perceivecl as ordcrly because order is imposed by the
m i n d . T h e m i n c l t a k e s i n t h e e x t e r n a l w o r l d t h r o u g h t h e s e n s e sa n d a l t e r s
it according to subjectivc, innate laws. The world can never be knclwn as it
i s , b u t r a t h e r a s i t i s p e r c e i v e d . P e o p l e ' sp e r c e p t i o n s g i v e t h e w o r l d i t s o r d e r .
Although Kant reaflirmed the role of reason as a source of knowledge, he
c < . r n t e n d etdh a t r e a s o n o p e r a t e s w i t h i n t h e r e a l m o [ e x p e r i e n c e . A b s o l u t e
k n o w l e d g eu n t o u c h e d b y t h e e x t e r n a l w o r l d d o e s n o t e . r i s t . R a t h e r , k n o r t , l -
e d g ei s e m p i r i c a l i n t h e s c n s e t h a t i n f b r m a t i o n i s t a k e n i n f r o m t h e w o r l d
and is interpreted by the mind.
I n s u m m a r y , r a t i < - r n a l i s mi s t h e i d e a t h : r t k n o w l e d g e a r i s e s t h r o u g h t h e
mind. Although there is an external world from rvhich humans acquire
s e n s o r yi n f o r m a t i < - r n ,i d e a s o r i g i n a t e f r o m t h e w o r k i n g s o l ' t h e m i n d . W i t h i n
this general framework, there are differences bctween philosophers. Des-
c a r t e sa n d K a n t b e l i c v e d t h a t r e a s o n a c t s u p o n i n f o r m a t i o n a c q u i r e d [ r < - r m
the rvorld, whereas Plato felt that knowledge can be absolute in the sense
that it is acquired by pure reason.

Empiricism
In contrast to rationalisrn, empiricisz ref'ers to the idea that experience is
theonly source of knowledge. This position originated with Aristotle (384-
 t2
THE STUDYOF LEARNING

3 2 2 s . c . ) , P l a t o ' s s t u d e n t a n d s u c c e s s o r .A r i s t o t l e d r e w n o s h a r p d i s t i n c t i o n
between mind and matter. His philosophv of learning stated that thc e-x-
ternal world is the basis lor human sensc impressions, which in turn are
interpreted as lawful (that is, consistent, unchanging) by the mind. The
Iaws of nature cannot be discovered solely through sensory impressions;
rather, they are discovered through reason by the mind, which takes in data
from the environment. Unlike Plato, Aristotle believed that ideas do not
exist independently of the external world, rather, the external world is the
source of all knowledge.
Aristotle contributed to psychological theory with his principles of
association as applied to memory. He believed that the recall of an object
or idea triggers recall of other objects or ideas similar to (similariry), differ-
ent from (contrast), or experienced close in time or space to (contiguity) the
original object or idea. The more often objects or ideas were associated,the
more likely recall of one w<-ruldtrigger recall of the other (frequencv).
Another influential figure was the British philosopher John Locke
(1632-1704). Locke contributed to the movement away from Plato's notion
that ideas could be discovered through reason alone. Locke also developed
a s c h o o l o f t h o u g h t t h a t w a s p s v c h o l o g i c a l i n t h e s e n s eo f b e i n g e m p i r i c a l
but that stopped short of being trulv experimental (Heidbreder, 1933).
Locke's views are summed up in his 1690 Essarr Concerning Hurnan
Understanding.
L o c k e b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e r e a r e n o i n n a t e i d e a s ,b u t r a t h e r t h a t a l l k n o w l -
edge derives from experience. There are two types of experience: scnsory
i m p r e s s i o n s o f t h e e x t e r n a l w o r l d a n d p c r s o n a l a w a r e n e s s . I d e a sa r e d e r i v e d
f r o m s e n s o r y e x p e r i e n c e s ; n o t h i n g c a n b e i n t h e m i n d t h a t d o e sn o t o r i g i n a t e
i n t h e s e n s e s .A t b i r t h , t h e i n f a n t ' s m i n d i s a t a b u l a r a s z r( b l a n k t a b l e t ) . I d e a s
are acquired from sensory impressions and personal reflection on these
impressions. The mind is composed of ideas that have been combined in dif-
ferent ways. The mind can be understood only by breaking down ideas into
simpler units. This atomistlc notion of thought incorporates principles of
association, because complex ideas are merely collections of simple ideas.
Locke made an important distinction between primary and secondary
q u a l i t i e s o I o b j e c t s . P r i m a r y q u a l i t i e s a r e s u c h c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a s s i z e ,s h a p e ,
weight, and number. They exist in the external world as parl of the object
or situation and are simply impressed onto the mind. In contrast, percep-
tion of secondary qualities (e.g.,color, sound, taste) depends on the indivi-
dual's sensoryequipment and mind.
T h e i s s u e sr a i s e d b y L o c k e w e r e d e b a t e d b y s u c h i n d i v i d u a l s a s G e o r g e
B e r k e l e y ( 1 6 8 5 - 1 7 5 3 ) ,D a v i d H u m e ( l 7 I l - 1 7 7 6 ) , a n d J o h n S t u a r t M i l l ( 1 8 0 6 -
1 8 7 3 ) .B e r k e l e y b e l i e v e d t h a t m i n d i s t h e o n l y r e a l i t y . O n l y s e c o n d a r y q u a l -
ities exist; there are no primary qualities. Berkeley is viewed as an empiri-
cist, because he believed that ideas derive from experiences;however, he
 l3
LEARNING THEORY AND PSYCHOLOGY

also felt that people impose qualities onto their sensory impressions. Hume
agreedwith Berkeley that people can never be certain about external reality,
but Hume also believcd that humans cannot be certain about their own
i d e a s .H e b c l i e v e d t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s e x p c r i e n c c e x t e r n a l r e a l i t y o n l y t h r o u g h
their ideas, which is the only realitv. At the same time, Hume accepted the
empiricist notion that ideas derive from experienceand become associated
rvithone another. Mill rvasan empiricist and associationist, but he rejected
the notion that simple ideas combine in orderly ways to form complex ideas.
M i l l f - e l tt h a t s i m p l e i d e a s g e n e r a t e c o m p l e x i d e a s b u t t h a t t h e l a t t e r n e e d
not be composed of the former. Simple ideas can produce a complex thought
that might bear little obvious relationship to the ideas of which it is com-
p o s e d .M i l l w a s e s s e n t i a l l y p o s t u l a t i n g t h e n o t i o n t h a t t h e w h o l e i s g r e a t e r
than the sum of its parts, which is an integral assumption of Gestalt psy-
c h o l o g y( s e e t b e d i s c u s s i o n o f H i s t o r i c a l P e r s p e c t i v e si n C h a p t e r 5 ) .
In summary, empiricism postulates that experience is the only form of
k n o w l e d g e .B e g i n n i n g w i t h A r i s t o t l e , e m p i r i c i s t s h a v e c o n t e n d e d t h a t t h e
external world serves as the basis for people's impressions. Most philoso-
phers accept the notion that objects or ideas become associated to form
complexstimuli or mental patterns. Locke, Berkeley,Hume, and Mill are
amongthe better-known philosophers who espoused empiricist views.

LEARNING THEORY AND PSYCHOLOGY

Wundt's PsychologicalLaboratory
Who or what is responsible for the formal beginning of psychology as a
scienceis much debated (Mueller, 1979). Most psychology texts note that
the first psychological laboratory was begun in 1879 by Wilhelm Wundt
( 1 8 3 2 - 1 9 2 0 )i n L e i p z i g , G e r m a n y , a l t h o u g h W i l l i a m J a m e s s t a r t e d a p s y -
chological laborat<-rry at Harvard 4 years earlier. Wundt generally is given
thecredit largely because it was his clear intention to establish psychology
a s a n e w s c i e n c e. H i s l a b o r a t o r y a c q u i r e d a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e p u t a t i o n w i t h
an impressivelist of visitors, and Wundt started a journal to report psycho-
l o g i c a lr e s e a r c h .
The establishment of a laboratory marked the transition from the
formal theorizing characteristic of philosophers to the emphasis on experi-
[Link] transition was guided in part by Wundt's 1873book, Prin-
ciples of-Physiological Psychology. Psychology, according to Wundt, is the
study of the mind. The psychological method should be patterned after the
p h y s i o l o g i c a lm e t h o d : T h e p r o c e s s b e i n g s t u d i e d s h o u l d b e i n v e s t i g a t e d i n
terms of controlled stimuli and measured responses by means of experi-
mentation and introspection. (The latter are discussed in the section on
Titchenerlater in this chanter.)
 t4
THE STUDYOF LEARNING

wundt's laboratory attracted a "new breed" of scientist who accepted

t h e c h a l l e n g e t o e s t a b l i s h p s y c h o l o g y a s a s c i e n c e .T h e r e s e a r c h e r s b l e n d e d
experimentation with introspection and investigated diverse problems in
sensation and perception, reaction times, verbal associations, attention,
f e e l i n g s , a n d e m c i t i o n s .A l t h o u g h w u n d t ' s I a b o r a t o r y w a s n o t c r e d i t e d w i t h
any one great discovery, it established psychology as a discipline and ex-
perimentation as its method of acquiring knowledge.

Ebbinghaus's Verbal Learning

H e r m a n n E b b i n g h a u s ( 1 8 5 0 - 1 9 0 9 ) w a s a G e r m a n p s y c h o l < - r g i sw t ho, al-
t h o u g h n o t c o n n c c t e d w i t h w u n d t ' s l a b o r z r t o r v ,h e l p e d e s t a b l i s h p s v c h o l o g v
and the experimental method. E,bbinghaus addressed higher mental pro-
cessesby studying memory. He accepted the principle of association and
b e l i c v e d t h a t t l e a r n i n g a r n dt h e s u b s c q u e n t r e c a l l o i l e a r n e d m a t e r i a l d e p e n c l
o n t h e f r c q u e n c y c l fc x p o s u r e t o t h e m a t e r i a l . A p r o p e r t e s t o f t h i s h y p o t h e s i s
rcquired material with which subjects were unfamiliar. Ebbinghaus in-
vented n(ntsettse syllables, three-letter (consonant-vowel-consonant) com-
binations (e.g.,cetv,tij).
Ebbinghaus was an avid researcher who used himself as the subiect.
ln a tvpical expcriment, Ebbinghaus would devise a list of nonscnsc sylla-
bles, look at each syllable brielly, pause, and then look at the ncxr syltable.
In this lashion, he would determine how many trials it took to learn the
e n t i r e l i s t . H c f b u n d t h a t h e m a d e f ' e w e re r r o r s w i t h r e p e a t e d s t u d y o f t h e
l i s t , t h a t h c n e e d e d m o r e t r i z r l s t < ,lre a r n r n o r e s y l l a b l e s , t h a t h e f b r g o t i a p i d l y
a t f i r s t b u t t h e n m o r e g r a c l u a l l y , a n d t h a r th c r e q u i r e d f e w e r t r i a l s t o r e i e a r n
than to learn. Many times he studied a list of syllables sorne time after
o r i g i n a l l e a r n i n g a n d c a l c u l a t e d a - s t l i t t g s s c o r e ,t h e t i m e o r t r i a l s n e c e s s a r y
f b r r e l e a r n i n g a s a l p e r c e n t a g e o f t l - r et i m c o r t r i a l s r e q u i r e d f o r o r i g i n a l
learning. He also memorized some meaningful passagesand found that
m c a n i n g f u l n e s s m a d e l e a r n i n g e a s i e r .E b b i n g h a u s ( 1 8 8 5 / 1 9 6 4 )c o m p i l c d t h e
results of hi.s stuclies in thc bo<tk Memorv.
Major shortcomings oi Ebbinghaus's researchare that he emproved
o n l y o n e s u b j e c t ( h i m s e l f J a n d t h a t h e w a s n o t a n u n b i a s e d o b s e r v e r .N o n e -
theless, his results have been experimentally validated by numerous re-
searchers in subsequent years. He was a pioneer in bringing higher mental
processes into the experimental laboratory, which helped establish psy-
c h o l t - r g va s a s c i e n c e .

Titchener's S tructuralism
Edward B. Titchener (1867-1927) was a srudent o[ wundt's in Leipzig.
A l t h o u g h T i t c h e n e r w a s a B r i t i s h c i t i z e n , i n 1 8 9 2h e b e c a m e t h e d i r e c t o r o f
 t5
LEARNING THEORY AND PSYCHOLOGY

the psychological laboratory at Cornell University. Titchener imported

Wundt's methods and helped establish the experimental method in the
United States.
The psychology of Titchener had no particular name, although it even-
tually became known as structuralisz. Structuralism represented a blend
of associationism and the experimental method. Structuralists were inter-
e s t e d i n s t u d y i n g t h e m a k e u p o r s t r u c t u r e o f m e n t a l p r o c e s s e s ,a n d t h e y
b e l i e v e dt h a t h u m a n c o n s c i o u s n e s s i s a l e g i t i m a t e a r e a o f s c i e n t i f i c i n v e s -
t i g a t i o n .T h e y p o s t u l a t e d t h a t t h e m i n d i s c o m p o s e d o f a s s o c i a t i o n so f i d e a s
and that to study the complexities of the mind one must break down these
a s s o c i a t i o n si n t o e n t i t i e s o r s i n g l e i d e a s ( T i t c h e n e r , 1 9 0 9 ) .
The experimental method used by Wundt, Titchener, and other struc-
t u r a l i s t s w a s i n t r o s p e c t i o n , a c t u a l l y a t y p e o f s e l f - a n a l y s i s .T i t c h e n e r n o t e d
that all scientists rely on <-rbservationof phenomena and that introspection
is a form <lf observation. Subjects in introspection experiments verbally
reported their immediate experiences following exposure to objects or
e v e n t s . I fs u b j e c t s w e r e s h o w n a t a b l e , t h e y w o u l d r e p o r t t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n s
o f s h a p e ,s i z e , c o l o r , t e x t u r e , a n d s < -fro r t h . T h e y w e r e n o t t o " l a b e l , " t h a t i s ,
to report their knowledge about the obiect or the nreaningsof their percep-
[Link], fcrrexample, they said "table" while viewing a table, they were
committing an error by attending to the stimulus rather than to their con-
s c i o u sp r o c e s s e s .L a b e l i n g i n t e r f ' e r e d w i t h t h e s t u d y o f t h e p u r e o r g a n i z a -
t i o n t - r cf o n s c i o u s n e s s .
As a method, introspection was held in high regard by many of the
new psychologists. It was peculiar to the new science of psychology and
h e l p e d l e g i t i m i z e p s y c h o l o g y b y d e m a r c a t i n g i t f r o m o t h e r s c i e n c e . sI.n t r o -
spection was a method that required special training in proper use. A
trained introspectionist could determine when subjects were examining
their own [Link] processes rather than their interprctartions of
phenomena.
Introspection often was problematic and unreliable. When shown a
t a b l e ,p e o p l e w o u l d i m m e d i a t e l y t h i n k o f t h e w o r c l t a b l e ,t h e u s e s o f a t a b l e ,
and other related knowledge. F<-rrcingpeople to ignore meanings and labels
b e c a m er e c o g n i z e d a s a n u n n a t u r a l e x e r c i s e t h a t i n a c c u r a t e l y r e l l e c t e d t h e
m i n d ' s s t r u c t u r e . ( A s s e e n i n l a t e r c h a p t e r s , m u c h e v i d e n c ee x i s t s i n d i c a t i n g
that information is stored in memory in verbal form.) By ignoring meanings,
introspectionists were disregarding a central aspect of the mind. Watson
a n do t h e r b e h a v i o r i s t s ( C h a p t e r 2 ) d e c r i e d t h e u s e o f i n t r o s p e c t i o n a n d u s e d
i t s p r o b l e m s t o r a l l y s u p p o r t f o r a n o b . j e c t i v ep s y c h o l o g y t h a t s t u d i e d o n l y
observable behavior (Heidbreder, 1933).
Structuralists studied associations of ideas, but they had little to say
a b o u t h o w t h e s e a s s < , r c i a t i o nas r e a c q u i r e d . A l s o a t i s s u e w a s w h e t h e r i n t r o -
s p e c t i o nw a s a n a p p r o p r i a t e m e t h o d t o s t u d y s u c h h i g h e r m e n t a l p r o c e s s e s
 THE STUDYOF LEARNING

as thinking and judging, which are removed from immediate sensations

and perceptions. While Titchener was at Cornell, developments elsewhere
challenged the validity of structuralism. Among these developments was
the work of the functionalists.

James's Functionalism
Functionalism is the view that mental processes and behaviors of living
organisms help them adapt to their environments (Heidbreder, 1933). This
school of thought flourished at the University of Chicago largely through
the work of John Dewey (1867-1949) and James R. Angell (1869-1949). Before
discussing the contributions of Dewey and Angell, the psychologyof William
James (1842-l9l}), which was influential in functionalist thinking, is
examined.
James's (1890) principal work was the two-volume series, The Principles
of PsycholoB!;he also published an abridged version designed for classroom
use (1892). James was an empiricist who believed that experience is the
starting point for examining thought, but he was not an associationist. He
thought that simple ideas are not passive copies of environmental inputs;
rather, they are the product of abstract thought and study.
James (1890) postulated that consciousness, a continuous process
rather than a collection of discrete bits of information, has five
characterist ics:

1. Every thought tends to be part of a personal consciousness.

2. W i t h i n e a c h p e r s o n a l c o n s c i < , r u s n e st sh o u g h t i s a l w a y s c h a n g i n g .
3. W i t h i n e a c h p e r s o n a l c o n s c i o u s n e s st h < , r u g hits s e n s i b l y c o n t i n u o u s .
4. It always appears to deal with objects independent of itself.
5. It is interested in some parts of these objects to the exclusion of
others, and welcomes or rejects-chooses from among them, in a
word-all the while. (Vol. I, p.225)
The "stream of thought" changes as experiences change. "Consciousness,
from our natal day, is of a teeming multiplicity of objects and relations, and
what we call simple sensations are results of discriminative attention,
pushed often to a very high degree" (Vol. I,p.224). James thus described
the purpose of consciousness as assisting organisms to adapt to their
environments.
Functionalists incorporated James's ideas into their doctrine. Dewey's
(1896) article, The Reflex Arc Concept in Psychology,marks the beginning of
the movement. Dewey argued that psychological processes could not be
broken int<.rdiscrete parts, rather that consciousness should be viewed in
wholistic fashion. "stimulus" and "response" describe the roles played by
objects or events, but these roles could not be divorced from the overall
 t7
SUMMARY

reality. Dewey cited an example from James (1890) about a baby who sees a
candle burning, reaches out to grasp it, and experiences burned fingers.
From a stimulus-response perspective, sight of the candle is a stimulus and
reaching is a response, getting burned (pain) is a stimulus for the response
of withdrawing the hand. Dewey argued that this sequence is better viewed
as one large coordinated act in which seeing and reaching influence each
other.
Functionalists were strongly influenced by Darwin's writings on evo-
lution and survival. They believed that mental processes could not be dis-
sociatedfrom the environments in which they occur. Functionalism studied
the utility of mental processes in helping organisms adapt to their environ-
ments and survive (Angell, l9O7). The following factors were found to be
functional: bodily structures (because they allow organisms to survive);
consciousness(because it has survived); and such cognitive processes as
thinking, feeling, and judging. Functionalists were interested in how mental
processesoperate, what they accomplish, and how they vary with environ-
mental conditions. They also saw the mind and body not as existing sepa-
rately but as interacting with each other.
Functionalists opposed introspection as a method, not becauseit stud-
ied consciousness but rather how it studied consciousness. Introspection
attempted to reduce consciousness to discrete elements, which functional-
istsbelieved was not possible. The latter contended that studying a phenom-
enon in isolation does not reveal how it contributes to an organism's
survival.
Dewey ( 1900) argued for the relevance of psychology to education, be-
lieving that the results of psychological experiments should be applicable to
everydaylife. Although this goal was laudable, it also was problematic in
that it attempted to do too much. Its research agenda was too broad to offer
a clear focus. Thus, functionalism was replaced by behaviorism as the dom-
inant force in American psychology. The Iatter is the subject of Chapter 2.

SUMMARY
Thestudy of human learning focuses on how individuals acquire and modify
their knowledge, skills, strategies, beliefs, and behaviors. Most researchers
agreethat learning is an enduring change in behavior, or the capacity to be-
have in a given fashion, which results from practice or other experiences.
This definition excludes temporary changes in behavior due to illness, fa-
tigue, or drugs, as well as maturational and instinctive behaviors, although
many of the latter require responsive environments to manifest themselves.
Theories provide frameworks for making sense of environmental obser-
vations,serving as bridges between research and educational practices and
as tools to organize and translate research findings into recommendations
 l8
THE STUDY OF LEARNING

fbr educational practice. In research, the effects of one or more independent

verriables on one or more dependent variables are often examined. Types of
research include laboratory and field experiments, and the methodology
must be based on the purpose of the research. Each research type has ad-
vantages and disadvantages.
In conducting research, investigators are responsible for the welfare of
rcscarch subjccts and the protection of their rights. Potential risks to sub-
iecis must be avoided unless the risks are outweighed by potential benefits,
trs determined by the appropriate human subjects review committee. Re-
s e : . r r c hr e q u i r e s o b t a i n i n g i n f o r m e d c o n s e n t f r o m s u b j e c t s f o r t h e i r p a r t i c i -
pation, that is, informing them of the project's purpose, procedures, and
potential risks. Subject participation always is voluntary and may be with-
h e l d o r w i t h d r a w n a t a n y t i m e w i t h o u t p e n a l t y o r r e d u c t i o n i n s e r v i c e sn o r -
rnlllr, providccl.
T h e t - r r i c so [ l e a r n i n g d i f f e r o n a n u m b e r o f c r i t e r i a . S o m e o f t h e m o r e
i n r p o r t a n t c o n c e r - nh o r v l c e r r n i n g o c c u r s , r v h i c h f a c t o r s i n f l u e n c e l e a r n i n g ,
what the role o[ memory is, how transler occurs, and which types of learning
z t t ' cb e s t e x p l a i n e d b v t h e t h e o r . y .
As a scientilic discipline, learning traces its philosophical roots to epis-
tcnrolog.y, the study of knowledge. Tw<-ropposing schools of thought are ra-
tionalism and empiricism. Rationalism contends that knowledge derives
l - r o m r c a r s t - lw n i t h o r - r t a i d o f t h e s e n s e s ,w h e r e a s e m p i r i c i s m t e a c h e s t h a t e x -
p e r i c n c e i s t h e t - r n l ys o u r c c o f k n o w l e d g e . T h e r o o t s o f r a t i o n a l i s m c a n b e
t r z r c c c lt o P I a t o z r n da l s o z r r er e l l e c t e d i n t l r e w r i t i n g s o f D e s c a r t e s a n d K a n t .
P l a t o ' s s t u d e n t A r i s t o t l c e s p o u s e d e m p i r i c i s m , a d < - r c t r i n ee v i d e n t i n t h e
r v o r k s o f L < - r c k eB, e r k c l e y , H u m c , a n d M i l l .
Thc bcginning of psychology as a scicncc oftcn is ascribcd to Wundt,
b c c a u . s ch c c s t a b l i s h c d a p s y c h o l o g i c a l l z r b o r a t o r y i n L c i p z i g , G c r m a n y . T h c
laborattory includcd an activc group o{ rcscarchcrs who invcstigatcd learn-
i n g a n c l p c r c c p t u a l p l r c n o n r c n a .A l t h o u g h n o t a f l i l i a t c d w i t h W u n d t ' s l a b -
o r z r t o r y ,E b b i n g h a u s c o n d u c t c c l v c r b a l l c a r n i n g r c s c a r c h u s i n g h i m s e l f a s a
s u bj c c t . S t r u c t u r a l i s n r , a n c a r l y A n r c r i c a n s c l r o o lo f t h o u g h t , s t u d i c d t h c
s t l ' u c t u r c o { n ' r c n t a rcl v c n t s . U n d c r T i t c h c n c r , s t r u c l u r a l i s t s c m p l o y c d i n t r o -
s p c c t i < . r nt < - sr l u c l v h u n r a n c o n s c i o u s n c s s . P r o b l c m s w i t h s t r u c t u r a l i s m i n -
c l u c l c c l i t s n a r r o w r c s c a r c h [ < r c u sa n d i t s u s c o f i n t r o s p e c t i o n , a s c i c n t i l i c
nrcthocl of qucstionzrblc lcgitimacv. Anothcr school ol'thought, functional
isnr, merintaincclthat thc mcntal proccsscs and bchaviors of living organ-
isnrs hclp them :rclapt cnvironmcntally. Functionalism drcw from thc
writings of' William Jamcs and flourishcd at thc University <-rC f hicago
t h r o u g h t h c u ' o r k o l D c , u v c va n d A n g c l l . F u n c t i o n a l i s m ' s r e s c a r c h a g c n d a
rvas fbund tcl bc too broad to off'cr a clcar focus.