Studia Geotechnica et Mechanica, 2023; 45(s1); 370–381

Special Issue 19th KKMGiIG Open Access

Małgorzata Jastrzębska*, Marian Łupieżowiec

Application of Clay–rubber Mixtures for the

Transportation Geotechnics—the Numerical
Analysis
[Link]
received February 1, 2023; accepted August 31, 2023.
in the layers of road embankments and (depending on the
road class) in the lower layers of the pavement structure.
Abstract: The use of waste materials (including rubber)
in industry is one of the most important issues in terms of Keywords: clay–rubber waste mixtures; cyclic loads;
environmental protection. One of such applications is the road layer stiffness; stability of road embankment; VSS
use of soil–rubber mixtures in backfills or lower layers of load tests.
embankments or road structures. The numerical analyses
of the behavior of a clay–rubber mixture layer built into a
road embankment are presented in this article. An elastic- 1 Introduction
perfectly plastic model with a Coulomb–Mohr yield surface
was used in the finite element analysis. The parameters With increasing environmental awareness, the idea of
of soil–rubber mixtures adopted for the analysis were sustainable development has become widespread. It is
estimated on the basis of triaxial tests: monotonic (UU— very important to meet the human socioeconomic needs
unconsolidated undrained, and CU—consolidated in the context of maintaining ecological balance. This task
undrained) and cyclic (CU) performed with low frequency is also undertaken by geotechnical engineers, whose work
(f = 0,001 Hz). The triaxial tests were carried out on focuses on three broad areas: sustainable improvement/
mixtures of kaolin (K) and red clay (RC) with the addition reinforcement of weak subsoil, sustainable foundation
of 1–5 mm rubber granulate (G) in the amount of 5–25% design, and sustainable geotechnical design. These
by weight. Numerical analyses included a static plate activities include, for example: (1) the use of alternative
load test (VSS) of a layer made of a rubber–soil mixture environmentally friendly materials in geotechnical
built into the embankment and testing the stability of constructions such as embankments, slopes, dams; (2)
embankments using the c–f strength reduction procedure. reuse of waste such as rubber tires, fly ash, natural or
The results of laboratory tests confirm the necessity of artificial fibers for improvement and stabilization; and
testing soil–rubber mixtures each time before their use (3) conscious design and modeling based on geotechnical
in embankments. The observed overall decrease in shear parameters. For years, these issues have been widely
strength and stiffness of the tested material is variable discussed, analyzed, and practiced in geotechnical
and depends on the type of soil and the content of rubber engineering [22,31,32,48,52], especially in transportation
waste. Satisfactory results of the analysis were obtained, geotechnics [10,51]. Difficult and complicated geotechnical
both in terms of the values of layer stiffness modules and conditions are considered, e.g. when the subsoil contains
slope safety factors, which allows for the conclusion of weak cohesive soils of plastic consistency or shows
the possibility of using soil–rubber mixtures (with the volume changes (swelling or shrinking) under the
recommended granulate addition up to 30% by weight) influence of changes in water content [25]. In the case of
such soils, actions are taken to reduce the weight of the
embankments built on them or to reduce their swelling [27].
Rubber waste from car tires can be used for this purpose,
*Corresponding author: Małgorzata Jastrzębska, Katedra according to the rule “end-of-life tires” (ELT). Each such
Geotechniki i Dróg, Wydział Budownictwa, Politechnika Śląska, ul.
new application requires research [18,24,50]. Among the
Akademicka 5, 44-100 Gliwice, E-mail: [Link]@
[Link]
tests performed, direct shear tests [6,28,45], unconfined
Marian Łupieżowiec, Katedra Geotechniki i Dróg, Wydział compression tests or triaxial tests [1,18,46] dominate. The
Budownictwa, Politechnika Śląska, ul. Akademicka 5, 44-100 Gliwice two basic conclusions presented in the available literature

Open Access. © 2023 Małgorzata Jastrzębska, Marian Łupieżowiec, published by Sciendo. This work is licensed under the
Creative Commons Attribution alone 4.0 License.
 Application of Clay–rubber Mixtures for the Transportation Geotechnics—the Numerical Analysis 371

are: (1) regardless of the type of soil, its unit weight when All the issues very important in the design of road
added to rubber waste decreases and reduces the weight embankments and pavement structures presented
of the structure [16] and (2) the mechanical properties of above were taken into account during the planning and
soil–rubber mixtures vary depending on the type of soil, implementation of triaxial tests and numerical analyses,
the type of waste rubber used (size/shape [42,43]), and its and are discussed in the following sections.
percentage (weight or volume; [9,46]).
An interesting research problem arises here, the aim
of which is the practical use of cohesive soils–rubber 2 Laboratory tests—materials used
waste mixtures in geoengineering as light embankments
on weak soils or for the construction of road or railway
and test conditions
embankments. This issue finds its solution not only by
experiment but also by design. 2.1 Fine-grained soils
Nowadays, the basis of the design process is the
performance of many numerical analyses that allow the Two cohesive soils from Southern Poland were selected for
simulation of future processes of impact on the designed the tests. One of them of a characteristic red color (hence
object [4]. Based on the performed analyses, it is possible the usable name—red clay (RC) [29] came from Triassic
to prove the fulfillment of limit states, both ultimate and deposits in Patoka, near Częstochowa. While the other
serviceability. They allow for the consideration of many soil, named by us—kaolin (K), came from the Porcelain
cases and variants, which allows for the optimal selection Factory in Tułowice. According to a classification
of construction and material solutions to be able to erect consistent with the standard PN-EN ISO 14688-2:2006 [34]
a safe and functional facility. In particular, numerical and the unified soil classification system (USCS) [3], these
analyses play an important role when using new materials, are respectively:
for which a number of laboratory tests have been carried – Swelling (RC)—clay with silt (siCl) [34]/clay with high
out, but the application of which has not yet been tested plasticity (CH) [3]: d10 = 0.0008 mm, d50 = 0.0045 mm,
in practical implementations [8]. d90 = 0.02 mm, Cc = 0.63, Cu = 100, fCl = 29%, fSi = 71%,
The first problem is the need to obtain a suitable PL = 25%, LL = 75%, ssp = 97 kPa, FS = 31.50%,
base for the construction of the road surface. According – Nonswelling (K)—clay with silt (siCl) [34]/clay with
to polish standards, in road construction, properties in low plasticity (CL) [3]: d10 = 0.0001 mm, d50 = 0.0046
this area are checked in trial load tests with a rigid VSS mm, d90 = 0.05 mm, Cc = 1.25, Cu = 73, fCl = 38%,
steel plate [38]. On roads with a higher traffic load, it is fSi = 60%, fSa = 2%, PL = 20%, LL = 42%, ssp = 0 kPa,
required that the value of the secondary deformation
modulus E2, which is a measure of the subsoil stiffness (in where: d10, d50, and d90 are equivalent diameters; Cc is the
road jargon called load capacity), is not less than 120 MPa coefficient of curvature; Cu is the coefficient of uniformity;
[39]. In addition, there is a restriction on the value of the PL and LL are the Atterberg limits of plasticity and liquidity,
deformation index I0=E2⁄E1 was not greater than 2.2. The respectively; fCl, fSi, and fSa are the content of clay, silt, and sand
fulfillment of the latter condition results in the reduction fractions, respectively; ssp is the swelling pressure (according
of plastic deformations to an acceptable level. Owing to to PN-EN ISO 17892-5 [35]); FS is the free-swell (according to
this, ruts are not observed in the places where car wheels Holtz and Gibbs (1956) [15], after Head (2006) [14]).
pass, which significantly increases the durability of the A detailed list of all parameters and a description of
road surface. The second considered issue is the stability the tests from which they were obtained can be found in
of road embankment slopes, which is important for the works of Jastrzębska [18], Jastrzębska and Tokarz [24].
embankments of greater height [49]. The slope inclination
of 1:1.5, used as a standard in Polish road engineering,
makes it necessary to perform stability analyses each time 2.2 Rubber waste
the height of a communication structure is greater than
3.0 m. The stability of slopes is greatly influenced by the One tire waste size was used in soil–rubber mixtures:
strength properties of the material used to build the subject granulate (G) 1–5 mm (Fig. 1). The rubber additive
object. In engineering practice in Poland, it is required to originated from the local shredding companies and
obtain a value of the stability coefficient not lower than 1.5 contained negligible amounts of textile parts. The
[39], which means a very large safety margin. Usually, the parameters characteristic for granulate (according to [24])
requirements in the slope stability are clearly lower [49]. indicating their homogeneous nature are as follows:
372 Małgorzata Jastrzębska, Marian Łupieżowiec

– Granulate (G)—d10 = 1.12 mm, d50 = 2.0 mm, d90 = 4.0

mm, Cc = 0.8, Cu = 2.1.

The specific gravity of rubber was approximately 1.15

g/cm3, which falls within the range of values given by
Akbulut et al. [2] and Kalkan [26].

2.3 Soil–rubber mixtures

For the purposes of numerical analyses, the following

mixtures of pure soil (RC or K) with the addition of 0, 10,
and 25% rubber waste (G) in relation to the total mass
were prepared:
– RC-G-10 (90% red clay with 10% addition of granulate Figure 1: Rubber waste granulate (G) 1–5 mm used in triaxial tests.
1–5 mm);
– RC-G-25 (75% red clay with 25% addition of granulate
1–5 mm);
– K-G-25 (75% kaolin with 25% addition of granulate 1–5
mm);
– RC (100% red clay);
– K (100% kaolin).

The proper specimens from RC and K, and their mixtures

with granulate (RC-G and K-G) were prepared by cutting
the specimens directly from a block prepared in a Proctor
apparatus or by pushing out from the cylindrical forms
pressed into Proctor’s mold (Fig. 2). A detailed description
of the samples preparation was presented in the works of
Jastrzębska [18], Jastrzębska and Tokarz [24]. It is worth
noting that with the higher content of rubber waste, the
density of soil–rubber mixtures decreased accordingly:
RC – r = 1.85 g/cm3, RC-G-10 – r = 1.62 g/cm3, RC-G-25 – r =
1.46 g/cm3, K – r = 1.94 g/cm3, K-G-25 – r = 1.52 g/cm3. This
fact is important in the case of loading a weak subsoil with
embankments made of soil–rubber mixtures.

2.4 Triaxial test conditions

The full research program included triaxial tests: cyclic and

monotonic CU (consolidated, undrained) and monotonic
Figure 2: Preparation of specimens from the red clay–granulate
UU (unconsolidated, undrained) was conducted according mixture.
to the Standards PN EN ISO 17892-9 [36] and PKN-CEN ISO/
TS 17892-8:2009 [33], respectively. Each sample (tests CU)
was saturated, initially by flushing with deaerated water, and a constant stress amplitude equal to A = 0.35q (where
and after by using back pressure procedure (at the end of q is a deviator stress corresponding a current axial strain
the back pressure procedure, Skempton parameter was e1 = 1%, which corresponds to the moment when the cyclic
equal to B = 0.86–0.96). The cyclic triaxial tests (CU) were load action started), at a constant displacement rate
carried out with a low frequency (f ≈ 0.001 Hz, and it is low (controlled deformation) equal to vs = 0.9 mm/h. After
enough to exclude the presence of dynamic phenomena) cyclic loading, the test was continued under a monotonic
 Application of Clay–rubber Mixtures for the Transportation Geotechnics—the Numerical Analysis 373

load until an axial strain of 15% was achieved. To avoid A common problem when performing numerical
the impact of swelling, in the case of UU triaxial tests the analyses is the selection of parameter values used in the
specimens were not saturated with deaerated water prior computation. The use of advanced constitutive models
to shearing realized at a constant displacement rate equal makes it necessary to specify various parameters that
to vs = 7.2 mm/h (UU). Each series of UU tests was carried often do not have a simple physical interpretation, which
out at confining stresses equal to s3 = 50 kPa, 100 kPa, and makes it impossible to determine their values on the basis
200 kPa. Whereas each series of CU tests was conducted of typical laboratory or field tests. Hence, the great desire
at confining stresses equal to s’3 = 20 kPa, 50 kPa, and 80 to use simple models for which it is possible to precisely
kPa (for RC and RC-G) and s’3 = 100 kPa, 200 kPa, and 300 determine the values of model parameters [12]. Of course,
kPa (for K-G). The selection of confining pressure s’3 = 100 then it is necessary to perform practical verifications that
kPa, 200 kPa, and 300 kPa for K–rubber waste mixture will confirm the correctness of the performed numerical
tests refers to earlier Jastrzębska’s tests conducted on pure analyses.
K [17,19,20,21]. In turn, the choice of confining pressure s’3
= 20 kPa, 50 kPa, and 80 kPa for RC–rubber waste mixture
tests sought to verify whether the expansive soil (weak 3.2 Stability analysis of the embankment
soil) with the addition of rubber waste could be used for slopes
road or railway embankment construction, where the real
transferred loads are usually less than 100 kPa. In the stability analysis of the slopes of the embankments,
the computations were divided into two stages. The first
one is the generation of the state of primary stresses,

3 Numerical analyses which arise from the self-weight of the soils forming the
road embankment. The current state of the embankment
was taken into account—the analysis of the change in the
3.1 Assumptions made state of stress and the resulting settlements of the subsoil
under the embankment during the erection of the earth
Numerical analyses were performed by the finite element structure was omitted [23]. The next step is the analysis
method using the Z_Soil 2020 program [7]. In the case of of the stability by the strength reduction method c–f.
the stability analysis, a simplification was used in the form The adopted numerical procedure assumes a gradual
of assuming a plane strain state, which is characteristic (in predetermined calculation steps) reduction of the
for linear objects [5,41,44]. When analyzing the VSS plate cohesion value and the internal friction angle according
test, the assumption of axial symmetry was adopted, to the following relationship (3.1) [44,47,53]:
which is also correct for a homogeneous substrate (at
least to the depth of the test range, which is defined as 2 D,
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐0 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡0
where D is the diameter of the steel rigid plate used in the (3.1) 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = = , (3.1)
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
test. Quadrangular, four-node finite elements were used
for the analyses. In each node, the searched unknowns
were the components of displacements in two directions: where: Fs—safety factor, which is a measure of safety due
vertical and horizontal. A simple, elastic-perfectly plastic to stability; c0, f0—initial values of cohesion and internal
model with a Coulomb–Mohr yield surface was used for friction angle; cf, ff —values of cohesion and friction angle
the analyses. Since the analysis of the single-component at the moment of completion of computation due to the
soil medium was limited to the analysis, the state of total lack of convergence of iterative procedures.
stresses was analyzed, without separation into stresses As a result of the decrease in the strength parameters,
taken by the soil skeleton and water in the pores. Hence, plastic zones, which appear in part of the model, are
the behavior of the soil medium will be described by the eliminated in subsequent iterative steps using the
integer values of the strength parameters: cohesion cu and phenomenon of stress redistribution. The procedure is
friction angle fu. The Coulomb–Mohr model describes carried out until the iterative procedures do not converge,
the shear strength of the soil very well, hence the use of which means that the computation are completed. The
this model in stability analyses gives sufficiently accurate results of the analyses are the value of the safety factor Fs
results [13]. The behavior of the soil medium in phase of obtained at the end of the calculations and the location
elastic work is described by two more parameters: Young’s of the slide surface. The abovementioned location is
modulus E and Poisson ratio n. estimated on the basis of the analysis of the map of
374 Małgorzata Jastrzębska, Marian Łupieżowiec

total displacements at the moment of loss of stability of When making road embankments, the requirements are
computation [30]. E2 ≥ 40 MPa for the lower layers of the road embankment
The procedure of estimating the value of the Fs and E2 ≥ 60 MPa for layers located up to 2.0 m below the
factor adopted above has a great advantage compared bottom base of the pavement structure [38]. In the case
to the so-called strip methods (Fellenius, Bishop, of the strain ratio, these requirements come down to I0
Janbu, Morgenstern-Price, etc.), where the user must ≤ 2.2 for the layers located directly under the pavement
first define the location of the slide surface [40]. In the structure and I0 ≤ 2.5 for deeper layers. The above values
presented method, the shape of this surface is the result for the I0 index are quite conservative. Treating the soil–
of computations. The obtained stability loss mechanism rubber mixture as multigrained soils, I0 ≤ 3.0 would be a
corresponds to the smallest value of the safety factor sufficient requirement. However, it should be pointed out
(each hypothetically different failure mechanism will that the requirements regarding the I0 coefficient are not
have a greater factor). much justified for layers located deep under the pavement
structure. Some engineers treat this value as a measure of
compaction (i.e. a measure of the quality of contractors’
3.3 Simulation of the VSS test works), however, from the point of view of soil mechanics, it
is a very rough approximation having little in common with
The basic in situ test used in road construction is a load the actual properties of the corpus of the road embankment.
test of a rigid VSS steel plate with a diameter of 300 mm.
In road jargon, it is called a test of the bearing capacity
of the subsoil or road pavement structure. This test
allows the assessment of the condition of the native soil
4 Results and discussion
layer or aggregate layer to a depth of approx. 0.5–0.6 m
below the level of the steel plate base. The layers of the 4.1 Definition of numerical models
communication embankment are assessed in the same
way, and a single test allows to visualize the condition of The numerical model used for the stability analysis is
1–2 layers of the embankment. The test loads are carried shown in Fig. 3. A road embankment with a height of 6 m
out in two stages. The first is the primary load, which in was analyzed. Owing to the symmetry of the problem, half
steps of 50 kPa reaches a value of 250–450 kPa depending of the model was taken, assuming the axis of symmetry
on the type of the tested element (soil layer, embankment running through the center of the embankment. It should
layer, lower or upper layers of the pavement structure). be noted that in order to be able to take into account the
The next stage of the analysis is the secondary loading above simplification, the shape of the embankment, the
after unloading. In this stage, repeated pressures of course of layers in the subsoil, and the corpus of the
approx. 100 kPa lower than in the first stage are applied. embankment, as well as the assumed boundary conditions
The results of the analyses are the values of the E1 and must be characterized by symmetry. The built numerical
E2 stiffness modules obtained from the primary and model had 2777 finite elements. Generally, the stability of
secondary loading of the plate, respectively, calculated a given slope is determined by the geometric shape and the
according to the formula (3.2): strength and deformation properties of the materials that
build the embankment. In the case of a weaker subsoil,
the properties of the subsoil on which the embankment
Δ𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
(3.2) 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸1 , 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸2 = , (3.2) was erected also have a large impact on its stability. Hence,
Δ𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
the need to take into account the subsoil to a depth that
will ensure no influence of boundary conditions on the
where: Dp—load increment [MPa], Ds—settlement obtained analysis results. Similarly, the area of the base of
increment [mm]. the embankment should be considered. In the built model,
In addition to the above modules, the result of the a distance of 25 m from the base of the embankment and 20
analyses is also the value of the strain ratio determined m into the ground under the embankment was assumed.
from the relationship (3.3): Standard geotechnical boundary conditions were used,
which assume that displacements in both directions are
prevented in all nodes on the lower edge of the model and
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸2
(3.3) 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼0 = . (3.3) horizontal displacements in nodes on both side edges are
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸1
not possible. In the stability analyses, the occurrence of
 Application of Clay–rubber Mixtures for the Transportation Geotechnics—the Numerical Analysis 375

Figure 3: Model used for stability analysis

Figure 4: Model was used to analyze the properties of the subsoil under the road surface construction.

exploitation load on the road surface was additionally dimensions of 5 D = 1.5 m in the horizontal direction and
taken into account, which was assumed as a uniform 10 D = 3.0 m in the vertical direction. These dimensions
pressure of 25 kPa exerted on the part of the embankment are definitely larger than those traditionally used in the
crown occupied by the surface structure. analysis of foundation–soil cooperation [13]; however, in
With numerical analyses of VSS test load simulations, the present case, due to these dimensions, it was possible
the dimensions of the geometrical model (Fig. 4) of the to thoroughly analyze the extent of the impact of the plate
analyzed model are correspondingly smaller. They result into the subsoil and determine the influence of the deeper
from the dimensions of the plate used in the tests, the layers on the obtained results. The number of defined
radius of which is: D⁄2 = 150 mm. The defined model has finite elements in this case was 2434.
376 Małgorzata Jastrzębska, Marian Łupieżowiec

Table 1: The strength parameters obtained from CU/UU triaxial tests.

4.2 Selection of parameters for calculations
Type of CU triaxial tests CU triaxial tests
Similar to Das and Singh [9] and Tajdini et al. [46], a material (cyclic/(*) monotonic) (monotonic)
random change in the internal friction angle and cohesion Internal Cohesion Internal Cohesion
is visible (Table 1). The results confirm the opinion that friction angle c [kPa] friction c [kPa]
testing the soil–rubber mixture intended for engineering f [°] angle f [°]
applications is necessary each time. Table 1 summarizes RC-G-10 24 61 24 62
the strength parameters (internal friction angle f and
RC-G-25 15 30 28 22
cohesion c) obtained from CU/UU triaxial tests. On their
K-G-25 9 70 – –
basis, the parameters presented in Table 2 were adopted
for numerical analyses. Carefully estimated average RC – – 21 167
values characterizing various cement–soil mixtures K 25* 11* – –
based on cyclic tests were adopted, which characterize
the properties of the material under the conditions of
Table 2: Parameters taken for numerical analyses.
characteristic interactions of communication structures.
The parametric analysis performed in the following part Material zone Volumetric Cohesion Internal Stiffness
will allow to assess the influence of a given parameter weight c [kPa] friction modulus
on the obtained results in numerical analyses. The [kN/m3] angle f [°] E [MPa]
considerate range of parameter values includes all the The corpus of 15.0 30 15 60
values obtained in tests for the analyzed materials. the embankment
A total of 3 material zones were adopted. When (soil–rubber
analyzing the stability of the embankment slopes, the mixture)
parameters of the elements simulating the behavior Subsoil under 21.0 5 30 40
of the layers of the pavement structure, as well as the the embankment
elements being the subsoil, were adopted in such a way Pavement 22.0 Elastic material 800
that these layers did not affect the obtained analysis structure
results. Therefore, the situation when the slope stability is
affected by a weak subsoil was not analyzed. The problem
defined in this way will allow to assess the possibility of 4.3 Course of analyses
using the tested material in road construction.
The most important, from the point of view of the The analysis of the slope stability of the road embankment
issues discussed in the article, are the parameters of was carried out in three stages. The first one is the
the soil–rubber mixture from which the embankment generation of the state of primary stresses in the subsoil
was made. These values were estimated based on mean and the corpus of the embankment, which results from the
values obtained in laboratory tests (Table 1, [18,24]). A self-weight of the soils and materials. Next, the operational
careful estimation of the parameter values was adopted, load of the road surface was set in calculation steps. The
which allows us to treat them as derived values (experts) third and most important stage was the stability analysis
according to the Eurocode 7 standard. The properties of carried out using the c–f strength reduction method,
the subsoil under the embankment were assumed in such which was described earlier. After the computations
a way that the subgrade did not determine the obtained are completed, which takes place when the numerical
results. The results of numerical analyses will make procedures do not converge, it is possible to estimate the
it possible to assess the possibility of using the tested location of the slip surface corresponding to the lowest
material in road construction from the point of view of value of the safety factor Fs.
the strength and deformation properties and the impact The first stage of the numerical simulation of VSS
of these properties on the results of acceptance tests, plate load test tests is also the generation of the primary
as well as the safety margin due to the stability of the stress state. Owing to the dimensions of the model, in this
embankment. case the obtained values are definitely smaller. Next, the
load transferred to the steel plate was applied. The path
of the primary load was carried out, obtaining the value
of 350 kPa. Next the unloading and reloading process to
the value of 250 kPa was realized. The obtained values of
 Application of Clay–rubber Mixtures for the Transportation Geotechnics—the Numerical Analysis 377

Figure 5: Settlements caused by the exploitation load of the road surface.

displacements of the plate center will allow to calculate factor in the safety margin (Fig. 7a). If a sufficiently high
the values of modules E1 and E2 and the strain ratio I0. value of cohesion is confirmed, this material will be an
excellent component that will guarantee safe use of the
communication structure. It is also easy to notice the
4.4 Results obtained from the numerical large influence of the value of the internal friction angle
analyses (Fig. 7b).
The results of the second of the performed analyses—
The results of analyses of the behavior of the road simulation of the VSS plate test, on the basis of which the
embankment erected with using the analyzed rubber–soil properties of the subsoil and embankment layers in road
material are presented in Figures 5–9. The first of them construction are determined, are shown in Fig. 8. Based on
(Fig. 5) shows the values of settlements due to operational the stress–settlement relationship, from the appropriate
loads of the road surface structure. The maximum load phases, the values of the stiffness modulus and the
settlement amounts to 5.8 mm and these values are strain ratio can be determined. The obtained modules
within the requirements of the relevant regulations and for the results presented in the Fig. 8 are equal to:
standards [37,38,39]. Fig. 6 shows the yield surface at the E1 = 24.2 MPa, E2 = 56.7 MPa and I0 = 2.35. They have been
moment of loss of stability, which corresponds to the value calculated for the appropriate ranges of stresses related
of the safety factor Fs = 2.26. This area can be estimated to the subsoil. These results meet the requirements for
on the basis of the map of total displacements. The yield the subsoil or even lower layers of the road embankment
surface corresponds to the sliding of earth masses along on which the road surface structure will be made (30–40
the cylindrical surface running through the corpus of the MPa—depending on the road class). To be able to use
embankment. Attention should be paid to the very high the material to make layers with higher requirements, it
value of the Fs coefficient, which results from the high would have to have a higher value of Young’s modulus,
strength parameters of the analyzed rubber–soil material. which is a measure of material stiffness. An important
As part of the numerical analyses performed, the result is also the settlement map (Fig. 9), which indicates
impact of the cohesion and the internal friction angle the depth of the impact of the load transmitted by the VSS
values on the value of the safety factor was also carried out. plate into the subgrade. Based on this observation, it can
The results of these analyses are presented in the figures be concluded that it is necessary to test each layer of the
below. It is easy to see that the cohesion is the decisive formed embankment, while the study of the native subsoil
 378 Małgorzata Jastrzębska, Marian Łupieżowiec

Fig. 6. Map of total displacements at the moment of loss of stability of the embankment slope
Figure 6: Map of total displacements at the moment of loss of stability of the embankment slope.

a) b)

Fig. 7:[Link]
Figure Analysis of theof strength
of the impact impactparameters
of strength
on theparameters onfactor:
value of the safety the a)value of b)
cohesion, the safety
internal factor:
friction angle. a) cohesion,

b) internal friction angle

Figure 8: Stress–settlement relationship for the VSS plate load test simulation.
Fig. 8. Stress–settlement relationship for the VSS plate load test simulation
 Application of Clay–rubber Mixtures for the Transportation Geotechnics—the Numerical Analysis 379

[Link]
9. Map9: Mapof settlements
of settlements causedcaused
by the loadby the load
transmitted transmitted
by the VSS plate. by the VSS plate

gives information about their deformation properties only and depends on the type of soil and the content of rubber
to a small depth. waste. In some cases, an addition of 5% granulate is more
preferable, and in other situations—10%. However, this
recommended addition of granulate should not exceed

5 Conclusions 30% by weight.

An important element of the designing process
with the use of soil–rubber mixtures is the performance
Based on the considerations carried out, it can be
of numerical analyses, which, based on the results of
concluded that the numerical model of the analyzed issues
laboratory tests, will allow to estimate the properties of
presented in this article is the right tool for assessing the
the obtained layers. In particular, a simulation of the VSS
properties of objects made from the analyzed material.
slab load test should be carried out, which is crucial in the
The results obtained in the performed numerical
implementation of road construction works. In addition, it
analyses indicate that the soil–rubber material, provided
is extremely important to perform slope stability analyses,
that appropriate properties are obtained in laboratory and
especially in the case of high embankments. Stability of
field tests, can be used in the corpus of communication
slopes is largely determined by the strength properties
embankments, as well as in the lower layers of the
of the lower layers of embankments, hence numerical
pavement structure. Very favorable values of cohesion
analyses allow for realistic estimation of the existing
and internal friction angle guarantee obtaining the
safety margin.
appropriate stability coefficient, as well as the required
Performed numerical analyses showed that the
results in VSS plate tests, which are the basic tests carried
addition of rubber granulate in the amount of 5–25%
out during road works. In cases of practical use of this
allows the use of the material (depending on the road
type of materials in road construction, numerical analyzes
class) for road embankments or lower layers of the
must be preceded by the proper determination of model
pavement structure.
parameters in laboratory tests.
The results of laboratory tests confirm the necessity
of testing soil–rubber mixtures each time before their use
in embankments. The observed overall decrease in shear
strength and stiffness of the tested material is variable
380 Małgorzata Jastrzębska, Marian Łupieżowiec

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