Strain energy

CHAPTER 2 1
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦(𝑈) = ∫ 𝜎 × 𝜀 × 𝑑𝑉
2
Work and complementary work
The real work and complementary work is shown Strain energy due to axial force
graphically. 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 (𝜎)
𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑦 (𝐸) =
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 (𝜀)
It is below the load deformation curve. It can be
physically understood 𝑃 𝑙
𝐸= ×
𝐴 ∆𝑙
Complementary work
𝑃𝐿
It is a area above the load deflection curve. It has no ∆𝑙 =
𝐴𝐸
physical meaning however it is very useful in structure
As force increases gradually from zero to its final
anakysis
value, we take average value
1
𝑊𝐶 = 𝑃 × ∆ 𝑤𝑟𝑜𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 (𝑊) = 𝑎𝑣𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
2
Here 𝑜+𝑃
𝑊= × ∆𝑙
2
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑏𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒(𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘)
𝑃 𝑃𝐿
= 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘(𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘) 𝑊= ×
2 𝐴𝐸
𝑃2 𝐿
𝑊=
2𝐴𝐸
Strain energy and complementary strain
energy/ real work method Which is stored as strain energy due to axial force (P)
When an external load acts on the structure it 𝑃2 𝑙
undergoes deformation 𝑈𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 =
2𝐴𝐸
The internally produced work done in order to balance
external effects is known as strain energy
Strain energy due to shear
1
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦(𝑈) = ∫ 𝜏 × 𝛾 × 𝑑𝑉
In strain energy method internal force are developed 2
gradually form zero to final value . hance average value 𝐿 𝐿
1 𝜏 1 𝐾𝑉 2
is used for calculation (𝑈) = ∫ 𝜏 × × 𝑑𝑉 = ∫ 2
× 𝐴𝑑𝑥
0 2 𝐺 0 2𝐴 𝐺
The area made by stress strain curve with x axis gives
Where K is constant
strain energy and with y axis gives complementary
energy For rectangular section, K=1.2

For circular section, K=1.4

Strain energy due to torsion

1
(𝑈) = ∫ 𝜏 × 𝛾 × 𝑑𝑉
2
𝜏2
(𝑈) = ∫ 𝑑𝑉
2𝐺
Form torsion equation
𝑇 𝜏
=
𝐽 𝜚
𝑇𝜚
𝜏=
𝑗
then
 (𝑈) = ∫
𝐿
𝜏2
𝑑𝑉 = ∫
𝐿 2 2
𝑇 𝜚
𝑑𝑉
Impact load
2𝐺 2
0 0 2𝐺𝐽 Shock load or sudden load is referred as impact load.
𝐿
𝑇 2 𝜚2 In order to select a material to withstand sudden
(𝑈) = ∫ 𝑑𝐴 × 𝑑𝑥
0 2𝐺𝐽2 intense below, we must measure a material's
resistance to failure in an impact test.
𝐿
𝑇2
(𝑈) = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 The ability to withstand an impact below is referred as
0 2𝐺𝐽
toughness of the material.
Strain energy due bending /flexure
A member subjected to pure bending is known as CHAPTER 3
flexure member for example beam
Limitation of real work
Consider a beam subjected to stress 𝜎𝑥 If the applied load is more than one then the equation
Let dx, dA length of cross sectional area of an elelemt for strain energy method will not lead to findout the
deflection
From flexure equation
Example:
𝑀 𝜎𝑥 𝐸
= = When two pair load 𝑃1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃2 are acting then energy
𝐼 𝑦 𝑅
balance equation is
𝑀 𝜎𝑥
= 1 1
𝐼 𝑦 𝑃1 ∆1 + 𝑃2 ∆2 = 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
2 2
𝑀×𝑦
𝜎𝑥 = With this equation neither ∆1 𝑜𝑟 ∆2 can be computed
𝐼
The smack strain energy element is Deflection can be obtained only at the point of
application of load, and in direction of load
1
𝑑𝑈 = × 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 × 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 × 𝑑𝑉
2 Principle of virtual work
1 𝜎𝑥 Let us consider a body subjected to a set of real force
𝑑𝑈 = × 𝜎𝑥 × × 𝑑𝑉
2 𝐸 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 , 𝑃3 … . 𝑃𝑛 let the body undergoes deformation
due to other forces as shown in figure
𝜎𝑥2
𝑑𝑈 = 𝑑𝑉
2𝐸 This hypothetical deformation is called virtual
deformation
𝑀×𝑦 2
( 𝐼 )
𝑑𝑈 = 𝑑𝑉 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒
2𝐸
= (𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑏𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑣𝑖𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡)
𝑀2 𝑦 2
𝑑𝑈 = 𝑑𝑉
2𝐸𝐼 2 CHAPTER 4
Total strain energy is
Castillogis theorem
2 2 2 𝐿 First theorem
𝑀 𝑦 𝑀
𝑈=∫ 2
𝑑𝑉 = ∫ 𝑦 2 (𝑑𝐴 × 𝑑𝑥) In a leaner and elastic structure, the partial derivative
2𝐸𝐼 2𝐸𝐼 2 0
of strain energy (U) with respect to load (P) and
𝑀2 𝐿 moment (M) gives deflection (∆) and slope slope or
𝑈= ∫ 𝐼(𝑑𝑥)
2𝐸𝐼 2 0 rotation (𝜃) respectively. The value are measured at
𝑀2 the point of application of load and in the direction of
𝑈= ×𝐿 load.
2𝐸𝐼 2
𝑑𝑈 𝑑𝑈
𝑖. 𝑒 ∆= 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃 =
𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝑀
𝑀2
𝑈 = 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
2𝐸𝐼
𝑑𝑈
∆=
𝑑𝑃
 𝑑 𝐿 𝑀2 𝐿
𝑑 𝑀2 1 1
∆= ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ ( ) 𝑑𝑥 𝑃𝐴 ∆𝐴𝐴 + 𝑃𝐴 ∆𝐴𝐵 + 𝑃𝐵 ∆𝐵𝐵
𝑑𝑃 0 2𝐸𝐼 0 𝑑𝑃 2𝐸𝐼
2 2
1 1
𝐿 = 𝑃𝐵 ∆𝐵𝐵 + 𝑃𝐴 ∆𝐵𝐴 + 𝑃𝐴 ∆𝐴𝐴
1 𝑑𝑀2 2 2
∆= ∫ × × 𝑑𝑥
0 2𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑃 𝑃𝐴 × ∆𝐴𝐵 = 𝑃𝐵 × ∆𝐵𝐴
1 𝐿 𝑑𝑀2 𝑑𝑀
∆= ∫
2𝐸𝐼 0 𝑑𝑀
×
𝑑𝑃
× 𝑑𝑥 Maxwells theorem or reciprocal deflection
It is a special case of Bettis law.
1 𝐿 𝑑𝑀
∆= ∫ 𝑀 × × 𝑑𝑥 … … . (𝑒𝑞1) Case
𝐸𝐼 0 𝑑𝑃
𝑃𝐴 = 𝑃𝐵
Again
So Bettis law becomes
𝑑𝑈
𝜃=
𝑑𝑀 ∆𝐴𝐵 = ∆𝐵𝐴
𝑑 𝐿 𝑀2 𝐿
𝑑 𝑀2 It states that displacement at a point A due to at point
𝜃= ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ ( ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑃 0 2𝐸𝐼 0 𝑑𝑃 2𝐸𝐼 B is equal to displacement at point B due to same load
𝐿
applied at point A.
1 𝑑𝑀2
𝜃=∫ × × 𝑑𝑥 It is applicable only when support are unyielding and
0 2𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑃
temperature is constant.
1 𝐿 𝑑𝑀2 𝑑𝑀
𝜃= ∫ × × 𝑑𝑥
2𝐸𝐼 0 𝑑𝑀 𝑑𝑃 CHAPTER 6
1 𝐿 𝑑𝑀
𝜃= ∫ 𝑀× × 𝑑𝑥 … … . . (𝑒𝑞2) Maximum bending moment
𝐸𝐼 0 𝑑𝑃
Maximum bending moment occurs in a beam, when
Eq1 and eq2 are simplified form of castellans theorem the shear force at that section is zero or changes the
sign because at point of contra flexure the bending
Bettis law moment is zero
Statement
Absolute maximum bending moment
It states that “the product of force in one direction and When a given load system moves from one end to the
displacement in same direction due to load acting other end of a girder, depending upon the position of
along second direction is equal to the product of force the load, there will be a maximum bending moment for
in 2nd direction and displacement in 2nd direction due every section.
to load acting along 1st direction.
The maximum of these bending moments will
It is applicable only when support are unyielding and usually occur near or at the mid span.
temperature is constant.

It follows principle of conservation of energy. CHAPTER 5

According to bettis law Moment area method theorem
Theorem1
𝑃𝐴 × ∆𝐴𝐵 = 𝑃𝐵 × ∆𝐵𝐴
When a beam is subjected to external loading, it under
Proof
goes deformation. Then the intersection angle
Case 1: When Lord PA is applied, followed by load PB between tangents drawn at any two points on the
elastic curve is given by the area of bending moment
1 1
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝑃𝐴 ∆𝐴𝐴 + 𝑃𝐴 ∆𝐴𝐵 + 𝑃𝐵 ∆𝐵𝐵 diagram divided by its flexural rigidity.
2 2
𝑀
Case 2: When PB is applied, followed by PA 𝜃 = ∫( ) 𝑑𝑥
𝐸𝐼
1 1
𝑒𝑤𝑜𝑒𝑘𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝑃𝐵 ∆𝐵𝐵 + 𝑃𝐴 ∆𝐵𝐴 + 𝑃𝐴 ∆𝐴𝐴 Theorem 2:
2 2
If Since total work done in both case are equal.
The vertical distance between any point on the elastic
curve and intersection of a vertical line through that
point and tangent drawn at some other point on the
elastic curve is given by the moment of area of bending
moment diagram between two points taken about first
point divided by flexural rigidity.
𝑀
∆= ∫ 𝑥 ( ) 𝑑𝑥
𝐸𝐼

Component of suspension bridge

1. Cable
2. Suspenders
3. Decking
4. Supporting tower
5. Anchoring
6. Windties

Dead load of the bridge and the traffic load on the deck
are carried by cable through suspenders. The cables is
generally pass over towers and anchored to a proper
foundation

Cable are flexible member their curvature changes

under application of load
Stiffened and unstiffened Suspension bridges:
Feature Stiffened Suspension Bridge Unstiffened Suspension Bridge

Definition Has additional structural elements (like Lacks additional stiffening elements; relies
trusses or girders) to provide extra rigidity. mainly on the cables and deck for support.

Deck Flexibility Less flexible; the deck is more rigid and stable. More flexible; the deck can move significantly
under load.

Resistance to Better at resisting dynamic loads (like wind, Less effective at resisting dynamic loads; more
Loads traffic, and earthquakes). prone to vibrations and oscillations.

Load Distributes loads more evenly across the Load distribution is mainly through the cables
Distribution structure. and towers, with less even distribution.

Complexity of More complex due to additional stiffening Simpler design without extra stiffening
Design components. elements.

Construction Typically more expensive due to the Generally cheaper to build, as there are fewer
Cost additional materials and complexity. materials and simpler construction.

Maintenance May require more maintenance due to the Easier and less costly to maintain because of
additional components. the simpler design.

Example Uses Used in long-span bridges where stability is Used in shorter spans or areas with less
crucial, like bridges in high-wind areas. dynamic load concerns.

Vibration Better control of vibrations and deflections. More susceptible to vibrations, particularly
Control under heavy loads or strong winds.

Aesthetic Often bulkier due to additional stiffening Sleeker and lighter appearance due to the lack
elements. of stiffening elements.

Linear and nonlinear structure

Feature Linear Structure Nonlinear Structure

laws Follows hooks law Does not follow any law

Calculation Simple Complex

Behavior Predictable, Unpredictable

Superposition Principle Applies (Effects of loads can be added Does not apply (Effects can’t just be added)
directly)

Material Assumption Assumes elastic (returns to original Can handle plastic (permanent deformation)
shape)

Deformation Small and within limits Can be large, changing the structure’s
response

Stress-Strain Linear (Stress is proportional to strain) Nonlinear (Stress is not proportional to strain)
Relationship

Examples of Use Buildings under normal conditions, High-rise buildings in earthquakes, crash
bridges simulations

Time and Cost Faster and cheaper to analyze Slower and more expensive to analyze