Studia Geotechnica et Mechanica, 2024; 46(4): 315–327

Original Study Open Access

Abolghasem Ahmadi, Mohammad Amin Nozari, Meysam Bayat*, Ehsan Delavari

Investigating Calcareous and Silica Sand Behavior

at Material Interfaces: A Comprehensive Study

[Link]
received October 27, 2023; accepted August 25, 2024.
1 Introduction
Abstract: This study centers on the crucial determination The interaction between soil and various materials plays
of the mobilized friction angle between soil and various a pivotal role in numerous civil engineering applications,
materials, including steel and concrete, to enhance including pile foundations and soil reinforcement
the modeling of soil-structure interaction. The primary (Janipour et al., 2022; Motallebiyan et al., 2020; Noroozi
objective of the current investigation was to assess the et al., 2022a, 2022b; Vieira et al., 2013; Yavari et al.,
interfacial friction between calcareous and silica sands 2016). To date, extensive research has been conducted
when interacting with concrete or steel surfaces. To through field and laboratory tests, as well as numerical
achieve this, direct shear tests were conducted to examine simulations, to delve into the interface between soil and
the impacts of relative density (Dr), surface roughness different materials like geosynthetics, concrete, and
(Rn), and shearing direction. The test results reveal that steel (Farhadi and Lashkari, 2017; Guo et al., 2020; H.
the shear strength of calcareous sand surpasses that of lei Kou et al., 2021; Liu et al., 2014; Mortazavi Bak et al.,
silica sand when considering a specific Rn. Furthermore, 2021; Wang and Richwien, 2002). Previous investigations
the interface friction of both sand types escalates with have indicated that the interaction at the soil-material
an increase in normal stress and Rn, with higher values interface under static or cyclic loading is predominantly
observed in interactions with steel plates. Notably, the influenced by geotechnical properties of the soil (e.g.,
friction angle ratio (the interaction friction angle over soil density, moisture content, grading characteristics of
the pure sand friction angle) demonstrates minimal soil, and angularity of particles) and material properties
dependence on the sand type. The most pronounced (e.g., material type and surface roughness) (Arulrajah et
divergence in the friction angle ratio is evident at the al., 2015; Janipour et al., 2022; Khan et al., 2014; Kishida
maximum Rn value, which increases alongside Rn values and Uesugi, 1987; Vangla and Latha Gali, 2016; Xiao et al.,
for both calcareous and siliceous sands. With increasing 2019).
Rn values, the maximum shear strength, contingent The direct interface shear test, known for its simplicity
on normal stress and relative density, also rises. The and directness, is commonly used to study soil-structure
influence of relative density on the interaction friction interface behavior. Potyondy, (1961) carried out a series of
angle diminishes with escalating surface roughness. direct shear tests to explore the mobilized friction between
soils and structural materials, such as wood, concrete,
Keywords: Calcareous sand; Silica sand; Interface; Steel; and steel. These tests have revealed that geotechnical
Concrete; Direct shear test. properties of soils, such as water content, the properties
of structural materials (including surface roughness), and
the level of normal stress primarily affect the mobilized
interface friction. Kishida and Uesugi (1987) and Hammoud
*Corresponding author: Meysam Bayat, Department of Civil and Boumekik (2006) have emphasized the significant
Engineering, Najafabad Branch, Islamic Azad University, Najafabad, influence of steel surface roughness on the mobilized
Iran, E-mail: bayat.m@[Link] shear strength between geological materials and structural
Abolghasem Ahmadi, Department of Civil Engineering, Najafabad materials. Additionally, Gireesha and Muthukkumaran
Branch, Islamic Azad University, Najafabad, Iran
(2011) have noted an increase in both internal and
Mohammad Amin Nozari, Department of Civil Engineering, Rasht
Branch, Islamic Azad University, Rasht, Iran
interface friction angles with rising relative density of
Mohammad Amin Nozari, Ehsan Delavari, Department of Civil soils. Vieira et al. (2013) have studied soil-reinforcement
Engineering, Najafabad Branch, Islamic Azad University, Najafabad, Iran interaction mechanisms through direct and simple shear

Open Access. © 2024 Abolghasem Ahmadi et al., published by Sciendo. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons
Attribution alone 4.0 License.
316 Abolghasem Ahmadi et al.

tests, identifying soil and reinforcement characteristics (2017) have reported that grading characteristics, such
as the most influential parameters. Furthermore, Yavari as D50 and Coefficient of Uniformity (Cu), significantly
et al. (2016) have suggested that temperature exerts a impact the mobilized friction angle between calcareous
negligible effect on the shear strength parameters of sand and steel. Rezvani, (2020) conducted a series of
the soil-concrete interface. Janipour et al. (2022) have monotonic compression triaxial tests on calcareous sand,
specifically examined the interface friction between sand concluding that an increase in the number of horizontal
and concrete using direct shear tests, revealing that the geotextile layers reduces particle breakage in the sand.
mobilized interface friction is affected by the relative Li et al. (2020) have explored the potential of microbially
density of sand, surface roughness, normal stress levels, induced carbonate precipitation to enhance the interface
and the area of interaction between concrete and sand resistance between calcareous sand and steel. Wang et al.
at the shear boundary. Samanta et al. (2018) conducted a (2019) have investigated the effect of surface roughness on
thorough assessment of interface shear strength between the interface between calcareous and silica sand and steel,
sand and construction materials, considering factors like revealing that the mobilized friction angle between the
surface roughness, particle size, and relative density when steel surface and calcareous sand is approximately 5 to 6
sand interfaces with steel or concrete . Han et al. (2018) degrees than that observed with silica sand. (H. lei Kou et
explored the impact of factors like interface roughness, al., 2021) conducted a series of direct shear tests to study
particle characteristics, and sand gradation on the friction the influence of surface roughness and mean particle size
angle at the interface. Su et al. (2018) investigated the of sand on the calcareous sand-steel interface, concluding
effect of relative roughness (Rn) and mean particle size that the interface friction angle is primarily dictated by
(D50) on shear behavior at the sand-steel interface, finding the roughness of the steel plate, with calcareous sand
a critical Rn value beyond which peak shear stress and exhibiting a higher friction angle compared to silica
friction angle did not increase. As mentioned before, Rn sand. Furthermore, Xu et al. (2022) pointed out that the
is defibbed as the ratio of the maximum vertical peak-to- interface peak internal friction angle of geogrid-reinforced
valley distance (Rmax) to D50. Kou et al., (2021) studied calcareous sand is significantly greater than that of
the impact of surface roughness and mean particle size on unreinforced calcareous sand.
the friction behavior at the calcareous sand-steel interface, To the best of current knowledge, no comparative study
showing that greater roughness led to higher peak shear has been conducted to assess differences in the mobilized
strength, with calcareous sand having a higher friction friction angle between silica and carbonate sands in
angle than siliceous sand. Uesugi and Kishida’s laboratory their interactions with various structural materials such
tests revealed that the mean grain size of sand within as steel and concrete. The principal aim of this research
the examined range did not significantly affect behavior is to investigate the impact of steel or concrete surface
(Uesugi and Kishida, 1986). Liu et al. (2019) used a cyclic roughness, relative density, and shearing angle relative
direct shear apparatus to investigate pile-sand interfaces, to the direction of grooves on the interface shear strength
providing insights into cyclic weakening mechanisms, between sand and steel or concrete surfaces. Additionally,
including stress attenuation, strength reduction, and this study delves into the crushing rate of calcareous sand.
particle crushing, while also exploring the influence of
initial conditions, shear deformation, and pile roughness.
Rui et al. (2021) studied the cyclic behavior of the interface 2 Description of the Experimental
shear between carbonate sand and steel, considering
factors such as cyclic amplitude, particle size, surface
Work
roughness, and normal stress, finding that cyclic shear
increased interface strength compared to monotonic shear. 2.1 Materials
Despite this extensive research, most studies on
the soil-material interface have predominantly focused As illustrated in Figure 1, two distinct types of sand, namely
on silica sand. Calcareous sand, a distinctive type silica and calcareous sand, were utilized in the study, both
of soil shaped by various biological and chemical adhering to a specified grading curve. The investigation
influences, has received comparatively less attention. aimed to evaluate the interface shear strength between
Prior investigations have indicated that calcareous sand these sands and steel or concrete surfaces. Table 1
is more prone to crushing than silica sand (Choo et provides an overview of the physical and geotechnical
al., 2020; Lei et al., 2020; Li et al., 2021a; Shahidi et al., properties of the sand materials employed. Both silica
2024; Tao et al., 2021; Wang et al., 2022). Ha Giang et al. and calcareous sand fall under the classification of poorly
 Investigating Calcareous and Silica Sand Behavior at Material Interfaces: A Comprehensive Study 317

Figure 1: Grain size distribution curves and photographs of calcareous and silica sands.

Table 1: Physical and geotechnical properties of calcareous and silica sands.

Characteristics Symbol Unit Calcareous Silica

Sand Sand

Specific Gravity Gs (-) 2.73 2.71

Particle Diameter at 10% Finer D10 (mm) 0.4 0.4

Particle Diameter at 30% Finer D30 (mm) 0.7 0.7

Particle Diameter at 50% Finer (mean particle size) D50 (mm) 1 1

Particle Diameter at 60% Finer D60 (mm) 1.19 1.19

Coefficient of Uniformity Cu (-) 2.98 2.98

Coefficient of Curvature Cc (-) 1.03 1.03

Minimum Void Ratio emin (-) 0.61 0.54

Maximum Void Ratio emax (-) 0.96 0.91

Maximum Dry Density MDD (g/cm ) 3

1.521 1.9

Optimum Moisture Content OMC (%) 4 8

Soil Type (Unified Soil Classification System) UCSC - SP SP

graded sand (SP). Notably, the visual examination of For the experimental setup, concrete and steel plates
these sands reveals that calcareous sand exhibits a more with varying degrees of Rn were utilized. Figure 2 provides
angular particle morphology compared to silica sand. a visual representation of steel plates with different Rn
Table 2 presents the chemical properties of calcareous values. Rn denotes the ratio between the groove depth
sand, which was sourced from Kish Island, situated in of the steel or concrete plate and the D50. The concrete
the Persian Gulf in southern Iran. X-ray fluorescence plates, as seen in the bottom row of Figure 2, were prepared
(XRF) analyses confirmed that Calcite is the principal using a mixture consisting of fine silica sand, ordinary
component of Kish sand. Portland cement, and water, in a ratio of 1.8:3:1. These
318 Abolghasem Ahmadi et al.

Figure 2: Steel and concrete plates with various Rn values.

Table 2: Chemical properties of calcareous sand. concrete plates exhibited localized damage following the
direct shear tests and were used in just one test each. On
Compound Mass percentage (%) the other hand, the steel plates remained undamaged
CaO 50.03
throughout the testing. To achieve an Rn value of 0 for
the concrete surface, a sanding process post-casting was
MgO 1.630
implemented. This involved carefully sanding the surface
SiO2 0.908 of the concrete to significantly reduce its porosity and
Na2O 0.796 smooth out any roughness. The result was an almost
smooth surface, comparable to that of steel, which allowed
SrO 0.580
the Rn = 0 condition to be met for the experiments.
Cl 0.525

SO3 0.500

Al2O3 0.270 2.2 Sample preparation and experimental

Fe2O3 0.126
procedure
P2O5 0.091 The experimental approach encompassed a series of 10 ×
K2O 0.066 10 cm direct shear tests conducted on prepared samples. To
assemble the sand samples, dry sand was compacted within
CuO 0.021
a box using tamping techniques to achieve the desired
LOI* 44.46 relative density. The tamping method employed a manual
* Loss on Ignition (1000 oC, 2 h)
hammering device with a base area matching the sample
surface (10 × 10 cm). This device featured a 1-kilogram
concrete plates underwent a curing period of 28 days prior weight attached to the base via a rod. The weight was lifted
to the interface shear tests. The surfaces of both the steel to a height of approximately 30 cm and then released,
and concrete plates were intentionally grooved prior to allowing it to hit the metal surface above the sample due to
the direct shear tests. Each trench on the plates assumed gravity. The entire amount of dry sand was poured into the
an isosceles triangular cross-section, featuring varying mold and then compacted in one layer, considering the low
heights in correspondence to the assigned Rn values and thickness of approximately 3 centimeters in the upper part
an apex angle of 45 degrees. It’s worth noting that the of the mold. The uniformity of the compacted sample was
 Investigating Calcareous and Silica Sand Behavior at Material Interfaces: A Comprehensive Study 319

Figure 3:. Shear strength envelopes for the tested soils at Dr of 30 and 90%.

ensured by maintaining consistent tamping procedures, 3 Results and Discussion

resulting in an almost uniform density. The relative density
was recalculated after applying the normal stress, and if the
3.1 Interface behavior of calcareous and
density change exceeded 5% relative to the desired relative
density, the test was rejected, and the sample was remade silica sand with steel
to ensure accuracy.
In the current study, calcareous and silica sands were
For the interface tests, concrete or steel plates were
employed at two distinct relative densities, 30% and
positioned at the bottom section of the box, while the
90%, to explore their interface characteristics with steel
sand was compacted into the top section. It was essential
surfaces. Figure 3 illustrates the shear strength envelopes
to ensure precise alignment of the border between the
for both calcareous and silica sands, along with the
plate and the sand on the shearing line. Following sample
corresponding friction angles. The findings reveal that
preparation, the specimens were subjected to a constant
calcareous sand exhibits friction angles approximately
horizontal displacement rate of 1 mm/min in accordance
17% and 32% higher than those observed with silica
with ASTM-D3080. To ascertain the shear strength
sand at relative densities of 30% and 90%. This disparity
parameters of the samples, direct shear tests were carried
can be attributed to the inherent differences in particle
out under three different normal stress values: 100 kPa,
morphology and surface texture between the two sands,
250 kPa, and 500 kPa.
with calcareous sand particles displaying a more angular
Grain crushing can significantly impact calcareous
and rougher surface, resulting in an elevated friction
sand, even at relatively low stress levels, potentially
angle.
altering soil granulometry after shearing tests (Datta et
Within this section, the focus is on delving deeper
al., 1979; Hakimelahi et al., 2023; Li et al., 2021b; Tavakol
into the mobilized friction angle between calcareous and
et al., 2023). While intending to assess grain crushing in
silica sands and steel plates, particularly emphasizing
the early stages of the experiments, the small size of the
tests conducted with calcareous and silica sand at a
mold and the limited volume of sand used made accurate
relative density of 90% and various Rn. Figure 4 presents
measurement challenging. To maintain consistency and
the interaction shear strength envelopes for both sand
reliability in the results, the sand was replaced with fresh,
types, showcasing the influence of changing Rn on the
uncrushed samples after each shear test. This approach
steel plates. It’s notable that the variations in slope due
ensured that each test started with sand of consistent
to Rn changes in both sand types exhibit a similar trend.
granulometry, mitigating the effects of particle crushing
However, for equivalent Rn values, the shear strength
on the findings.
320 Abolghasem Ahmadi et al.

angle ratio (фi/фs) which represents the ratio of mobilized

friction angle at the calcareous sand-steel interface (фi)
to friction angle of calcareous sand (фs). However, it
does exhibit an increase with rising Rn values for both
calcareous and silica sands, indicating the influence of
surface roughness on the interface behavior.

3.2 Effect of relative density

To comprehensively examine the impact of relative density

on the behavior of the calcareous sand-steel interface, the
tests were conducted at two distinct relative densities,
30% and 90%, while varying the roughness of the steel
surfaces (Rn values of 0, 0.75, 1, and 1.5). The outcomes, as
depicted in Figure 7, showcase a noticeable increase in the
slope of the shear strength envelopes as Rn values rise in
both sets of tests. This trend underscores the heightened
influence of Rn in cases of lower relative density, with
the lines representing lower relative density exhibiting
greater separation.
For a more detailed analysis of the interplay between
relative density and Rn, the maximum shear strength
values of the sand-steel interface are presented against
Rn in Figure 8. Here, it becomes evident that the effect
of Rn becomes more pronounced with increasing normal
Figure 4: Shear strength envelopes for the interaction between stress. Specifically, the lines representing a normal stress
(a) calcareous sand and steel plates, and (b) silica sand and steel
of 500 kPa exhibit steeper slopes compared to those
plates, with different Rn values (Dr = 90%).
corresponding to normal stresses of 100 and 250 kPa.
Moreover, the discrepancy between the results of samples
envelope for calcareous sand is slightly higher than that with relative densities of 30% and 90% widens as the
for silica sand. In Figure 4, the symbol ϕ represents the normal stress value escalates from 100 to 500 kPa. This
mobilized friction angle at the interface between the soil suggests that an increase in Rn leads to an enhanced
(calcareous or silica sand) and the steel plates under maximum shear strength, a value intrinsically linked to
the specified conditions when used after Rn. However, it normal stress and relative density.
indicates the internal friction angle when used after silica Figure 9 provides insight into the variation of the
or calcareous sand. friction angle ratio (фi/фs) which represents the ratio
Moving on to the maximum shear strength values, of mobilized friction angle at the calcareous sand-
Figure 5 provides insights into the differences between steel interface (фi) to friction angle of calcareous sand
calcareous and silica sands at various Rn values of (фs). Notably, all the recorded values are less than one,
the steel surface. The results highlight that calcareous indicating that the friction angle at the calcareous sand-
sand consistently demonstrates higher shear strength steel interface consistently remains smaller than that of
compared to silica sand for a given Rn value. Moreover, calcareous sand. It is important to highlight that, for a
this difference between the two sand types becomes more given Rn value, the friction angle ratio is notably higher
pronounced with increasing normal stress and Rn values. when the relative density is 90% compared to 30%. This
The changes in the friction angle ratio were also underscores the significant impact of relative density,
scrutinized, representing the ratio of the mobilized especially when Rn values are at the lower end of the
friction angle at the sand-steel interface to the friction spectrum. Recent studies, such as Feng et al. (2024), have
angle of the sand. Figure 6 demonstrates that this ratio explored the mobilized shear strength at the interface of
remains relatively consistent, regardless of the sand type. silica sand and steel surfaces. Their findings indicated that
Figure 6 provides insight into the variation of the friction with increasing Rn, in some cases, the mobilized friction
 Investigating Calcareous and Silica Sand Behavior at Material Interfaces: A Comprehensive Study 321

Figure 5: Maximum interface shear strength values between calcareous or silica sand and steel plates with various Rn values, under various
normal stress levels and Dr = 90%.

Figure 6: Friction angle ratios for both calcareous and siliceous sand (Dr = 90%).

angle at the sand-steel interface is higher than that of pure at a consistent relative density of 90%. The Rn for the
sand. This suggests that the ratio might indeed approach concrete plates matched that of the steel plates. The shear
1 or exceed it. strength envelopes for the calcareous sand-concrete
interface are depicted in Figure 10. Much like the findings
in the calcareous sand-steel plate interface, an increase
3.3 Behavior of calcareous sand at interfaces in Rn and normal stress elevates the maximum mobilized
with steel and concrete shear strength. In this case as well, heightened Rn values
contribute to steeper slopes in the shear strength lines,
In an effort to discern the variations in how carbonate mirroring the behavior observed in the calcareous sand-
sand interacts with steel and concrete surfaces, the tests steel plate interface.
were done on the calcareous sand-concrete interface
322 Abolghasem Ahmadi et al.

To further dissect the influence of steel and concrete exceeding 0.75, the mobilized shear strength at the
plates, the maximum shear strength values for both sand-steel plate interface surpasses that of the sand-
plate types under various normal stress conditions are concrete plate interface. When Rn values are set at 0 and
presented in Figure 11. These results unveil a nuanced 0.75, the disparities between the results are negligible,
relationship: for a constant normal stress and Rn values and the outcomes remain largely independent of the
plate material. However, as normal stress escalates, the
distinctions between results obtained with Rn values of 1
and 1.5 become more pronounced, signifying the intricate
interplay between surface roughness and plate material.
The variation of the friction angle ratio for the
calcareous sand-concrete or steel interface at a relative
density of 90% is illustrated in Figure 12. At an Rn value
of zero, the friction angle ratio is marginally higher in
the case of the concrete plate when compared to the steel
plate. This divergence can be attributed to the unevenness
of the concrete surface in contrast to the steel surface
when Rn equals zero. However, for Rn values exceeding
zero, the friction angle ratio for the steel plate exceeds
that of the concrete plate. This shift can be ascribed to the
sharper edges found on the steel surface in comparison
to the concrete surface. The most significant discrepancy
in the friction angle ratio is evident at the maximum Rn
value, highlighting the importance of surface roughness
in governing interface behavior.

3.4 Influence of shearing direction

In this section, the effects of shearing direction on the

interaction between calcareous sand and steel or concrete
surfaces were examined through two sets of direct shear
Figure 7: Shear strength envelopes for the calcareous sand-steel tests. Unlike previous tests where the angle between
interface under (a) Dr = 30% and (b) Dr = 90% with various Rn
the shearing direction and grooves (β) was fixed at 90
values.

Figure 8: Maximum shear strength of the calcareous sand-steel interface versus the Rn under various normal stress levels.
 Investigating Calcareous and Silica Sand Behavior at Material Interfaces: A Comprehensive Study 323

Figure 9: Variation of the friction angle ratio of calcareous sand-steel interface versus the Rn under Dr 0f 30 and 90%.

Figure 10: Shear strength envelopes of the calcareous sand-concrete interface.

Figure 11: Maximum mobilized shear strength values at the interface of calcareous sand and steel or concrete plates under various normal
stress values (Dr = 90%).
324 Abolghasem Ahmadi et al.

Figure 12: Friction angle ratio for calcareous sand-concrete or steel interface at Dr of 90%.

90 degrees becomes more pronounced as the normal

stress increases. Additionally, it’s worth noting that the
influence of the shearing angle on the interaction shear
strength envelopes is more pronounced for steel plates
than for concrete plates. This observation underscores
the significance of shearing direction in governing
the interface behavior, with implications for different
materials.

4 Conclusions
Figure 13: Shearing angles of 0o and 90o.
In summary, the in-depth exploration of the interface
between calcareous sand and both steel and concrete
degrees, β was adjusted to zero degrees, as depicted in surfaces have unveiled critical insights. The investigations
Figure 13, for these particular tests. The tests with plates encompassed variations in relative density (Dr), surface
in the perpendicular direction were conducted using sand roughness (Rn), shearing direction, and the nature of the
with a Dr of 90%. material involved, providing a holistic understanding of
The results, presented in Figure 14, illustrate the this intricate interaction.
impact of altering the shearing angle from 0 degrees to 90 1. Effect of Relative Density: The significance of relative
degrees on the shear strength envelopes at the interface density emerged as a central theme in the current
between calcareous sand and concrete and steel plates. In study. Calcareous sand consistently demonstrated
Figure 14, the symbol ϕ represents the mobilized friction superior performance compared to silica sand,
angle at the interface between the calcareous sand and the displaying notably higher friction angles across a wide
steel or concrete plates when written after steel or concrete. spectrum of relative densities. Notably, the influence
It represents the internal friction angle of calcareous sand of Rn became increasingly pronounced with higher
when written after calcareous sand. Notably, an increase relative densities. The results emphasized that the
in the shearing angle leads to a steeper slope in the shear discrepancy between the behavior of sands at relative
strength envelope. In all cases, the interaction shear densities of 30% and 90% became more pronounced
strength envelopes fall below the shear strength envelope as normal stress escalated.
observed for pure sand. Furthermore, the discrepancy 2. Influence of Material Type: A pivotal aspect of the
between the results at shearing angles of 0 degrees and investigation involved the comparison between the
 Investigating Calcareous and Silica Sand Behavior at Material Interfaces: A Comprehensive Study 325

Figure. 14: Effect of shearing angle on the shear strength envelopes at the interface of calcareous sand and concrete or steel plates (Dr =
90%).

calcareous sand-steel and calcareous sand-concrete materials, broadening the scope of knowledge and further
interfaces. It was found that when Rn values exceeded refining models for soil-structure interaction.
0.75, the mobilized shear strength at the sand-steel
interface consistently outperformed that of the
sand-concrete interface. This disparity became more Data Availability
pronounced with increasing normal stress. These
findings underscore the nuanced interplay between No data, models, or code were generated or used during
material types and surface roughness in governing the study
interface behavior.
3. Shearing Direction: The intriguing influence of
shearing direction was explored by varying the References
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