Studia Geotechnica et Mechanica, 2025; 47(1): 36–47

Original Study Open Access

Shriram Marathe*, Martyna Nieświec, Arun Kumar Bhat, Srinath Shetty

Properties of Slag-Based Geopolymer-Stabilized

Indian Lithomargic Soil Using Sugarcane Bagasse
Ash for Sustainable Pavement Design
[Link]
received June 9, 2019; accepted August 7, 2019.
(45%) of entire pavement thickness while maintaining
performance. The economic benefits of geopolymer
Abstract: This investigation examines the feasibility stabilization in rural pavement construction were revealed
of stabilizing lithomargic soil subgrades through the through a comprehensive cost analysis that compared the
utilization of geopolymerized slag (GGBS) and sugarcane conventional and modified pavement designs while also
bagasse ash (SCBA). Through a series of compaction maintaining the sustainability element.
experiments, the best dry density was obtained by
maintaining a constant slag dosage of 10% by weight of the Keywords: geopolymer; sustainability; unconfined
soil while altering the dosage of SCBA. The geopolymeric compressive strength; sugarcane bagasse ash;
aqueous solution is produced by combining water glass stabilization; CBR; pavement design.
(Na2SiO3) and caustic soda (NaOH). The soil mixtures
were subjected to both unstabilized and stabilized UCS
and CBR experiments. The experiments suggest that the 1 Introduction
strength of subgrade soil enhances with the inclusion of
SCBA up to a specific threshold (i.e., 15%), after which The increasing amounts of heavy traffic and persistent
it decreases due to a constant dosing of slag. In order to environmental conditions have resulted in considerable
comprehend the hardening performance subsequent to obstacles for the building of conventional roadways.
geopolymer stabilization, the microstructural analysis These additional stresses result in a reduced lifetime
is implemented. The establishment of co-relationships of the pavement structures. Consequently, there is
among the strength parameters (UCS and CBR) facilitated an ongoing pursuit of new construction methods to
the formulation of a simple linear regression model in resolve these challenges and attain optimum pavement
order to comprehend the relationship among the strength performance. The soil subgrade is universally regarded as
parameters of geopolymer-stabilized lithomargic soil. the most critical layer for maintaining the overall stability
The long-term effectiveness of mechanical performance of pavement constructions [1]. Subgrade stabilization
was disclosed by the boost of strength performance, as is widely used to improve mechanical performance and
evidenced by the prolonged CBR and UCS achievement. alter the characteristics of poor foundation soil [2]. A
This study also suggests a pavement design that adheres range of stabilizing agents is used, including cementing
to the Indian Roads Congress principles for low-volume agents, electromechanical stabilizers, industrial
roadways, which results in a substantial reduction by-products, and chemical substances. Employing locally
sourced discarded materials in stabilization initiatives
might reduce the trash disposal challenges faced by
*Corresponding author: Shriram Marathe, Department of
local governments. Urban planners have considerable
Materials Engineering and Construction Processes, Faculty of Civil
Engineering, Wrocław University of Science and Technology, 50-370, challenges in managing industrial waste, attributed to
Wrocław, Poland, E-mail: [Link]@[Link] the escalating amount of demolition debris, limited trash
Shriram Marathe , Martyna Nieświec, Department of Materials disposal locations, increased transportation and trash
Engineering and Construction Processes, Faculty of Civil Engineering, disposal expenses, and heightened apprehensions about
Wrocław University of Science and Technology, 50-370, Wrocław, Poland
pollution and destruction of the environment [3–5]. The
Shriram Marathe, Arun Kumar Bhat, Srinath Shetty K, Department
of Civil Engineering, Nitte (Deemed to be University), NMAM Institute
synthesis of “geopolymers” from industrial by-products
of Technology (NMAMIT), Karkala Taluk, Udupi District, Karnataka, has become a significant research priority owing to its
India-574110 promise to provide a cost-efficient and environmentally

Open Access. © 2025 Shriram Marathe, published by Sciendo. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons
Attribution alone 4.0 License.
37 Shriram Marathe

sustainable cement-like material. The chemical activation 2 Materials and Experimental

of desiccated materials, such as fly ash and slag, in an
alkaline environment entails a chemical process that
Methodology
converts glassy systems, which are partially or entirely
The lithomargic soil that was utilized for the investigation
meta-stable and/or amorphous, through an intensely
was collected from the Nitte area in the state of Karnataka,
compact, bonded stabilizing product [6]. This study
which is located at 1301.09 degrees north and 740.62
explores a novel and environmentally sustainable
degrees east. A visual representation of the shedi’s
approach to soil modification.
primary geotechnical characteristics is shown in Figure
In the present investigation, a form of agro-waste
1. Jindal Steel Works (JSW) in Toranagallu, Karnataka,
known as sugarcane bagasse ash (SCBA) and an industrial
was the source of the GGBS that was used for this
spin-off known as “ground-granulated blast furnace
examination. The GGBS is the key precursor binder that
Slag” (GGBS) are used in order to produce geopolymeric
is used in the creation of geopolymer. Jamnagar, Gujarat,
cementing agents for the purpose of stabilizing the soil.
was the location of the supplier from which the SCBA was
The region of Dakshina Kannada in the state of Karnataka
obtained.
is the primary source of lithomargic soils. Lithomargic soil,
One of the local dealers was able to provide all the
also known as “shedi” soil, is prominent along the western
chemicals that were required for geopolymerization.
coastline of southern India. This kind of soil presents
These chemicals included NaOH solids and fluid Na2SiO3.
considerable issues owing to its high water sensitivity
For the preparation of the aqueous GP solution, water
and severe loss of strength when it becomes saturated.
from the lab’s taps was used. A visual representation of
These types of soils, which are often categorized as silty
the characteristics of the primary components (GGBS and
sand or sandy silt with a significant silt component, are
SCBA) as well as the specifics of the GP preparations could
prone to a variety of problems, such as slope instability,
be seen in Figure 2. Checks were carried out in accordance
base failures, barrier collapses, and unequal settlements.
with the proper Indian standard codes of practice in
Because of this, stabilizing soils of this kind is necessary
order to determine the impact that the GP had on the geo-
in order to satisfy engineering requirements [1].
aspects during the investigation.
There are just a few research studies that have been
Initially, the preliminary geotechnical tests on
conducted on the use of geopolymers in the alteration
the shedi soils were performed. From the groundwork
of soil that is being considered. In light of this, an effort
studies, the best dosage of “activator modulus” (Ms
was made in the present time to create GGBS and SCBA
value, i.e., SiO2/Na2O ratio) and “Na2O-to-binder” ratio
as binding compounds and to dynamically activate the
were derived from literature studies [13,14]. The essential
binders by means of the alkaline environment. Within
information is delineated under GP in Figure 2. The
the scope of this article, the stabilizing process of the
water-to-GP precursor proportion was maintained at
lithomargic (shedi) soils that are readily accessible in the
0.25 over the whole study. The total binder doses were
area was documented. Ordinary portland cement (OPC)
systematically increased from 10% to 30% in increments
has been shown to be an excellent main addition for
of 5%, and the compaction characteristics were analyzed.
stabilizing lithomargic and lateritic soils, as evidenced
Taxonomy “G” denotes the mixture, while the suffix digit
by a number of research studies [7–9] [10]. These studies
signifies the percentage of SCBA relative to the mass of
have achieved successful application to the recommended
the earth; specifically, G-10 refers to soil mixed with 10%
standards. This binding process is also seen with
geopolymer binder. G-0 denotes natural (unstabilized)
geopolymer binder-based cements made when they are
lithomargic soil. Moreover, in each mixture, the GGBS
treated with granular soils [2,5,12]. The primary effect
content was always kept at 10% of the total binder based
of the incorporation of OPC is to assist the cementing
on our prior study on the same soil, while the SCBA
of personage soil particles, which ultimately results in
concentration was increased in 5% increments (up to
the chemical stability of the initial soil [11]. As a result,
20%) from an initial 0%. For instance, in the G-20 mix,
the primary purpose of this investigation is to seek out
the composition included 10% GGBS and 20% SCBA,
the influence that geopolymeric slag (i.e., GGBS) and
respectively. For all mixtures, the IS light compaction
SCBA have on the characteristics of lithomargic soils by
test, CBR, and UCS evaluations were conducted, and the
means of geotechnical analysis for the sake of pavement
results were recorded as an average of three consecutive
engineering subgrade applications.
specimen tests, ensuring that the standard variation
 Properties of Slag-Based Geopolymer-Stabilized Indian Lithomargic Soil Using Sugarcane Bagasse Ash ... 38

Figure 1: Basic properties of pure lithomargic soil.

Figure 2: Properties of stabilizing additives used for the production of geopolymer.

among individual sample results did not exceed 15%. 3 Results and Discussions
Extended UCS and CBR tests were conducted on selected
samples to assess the long-term impact of stabilization 3.1 Compaction Properties of GP-Stabilized
[15]. The highway design and preliminary cost analysis Lithomargic Soil
were developed in accordance with the IRC guidelines
for low-traffic roads, namely, IRC: SP:62 for concrete Figure 4 displays the outcomes of the IS light compaction
(rigid) pavements [16] and IRC: SP-72 for the bituminous tests, presented as the average values after all three
pavement counterparts [17]. An analysis of linear experiments for the GP-stabilized lithomargic soil
regression was conducted to examine the relationship mixtures at different SCBA proportions. The results
between the UCS and CBR of the stabilized soil, as well demonstrate that when the SCBA dose rises, the
as to understand the effects of stabilization on these two “maximum unit-weight” (MDD) of the mixture first climbs
critical soil characteristics [18]. The stabilized soil for the to a certain threshold, beyond which further additions of
optimal blend was subjected to microstructure analysis SCBA result in a decline in the MDD peak. Conversely, the
to better understand the hydration mechanism of ground “Optimum Water Content” (OMC) of the mixture exhibited
improvement [10]. Figure 3 presents the materials and no discernible pattern. The augmentation of cement
major experimentation glimpses carried-out as a part of dosage prompted the soil granules to shift from a loosely
the laboratory investigation. aggregated structure to a tightly bound configuration,
39 Shriram Marathe

Figure 3: Materials and glimpses of laboratory experimentations.

leading to altered water needs for achieving optimal which further enhance the soil’s compactness and density
compaction. The test findings indicated that lithomargic [22]. The increased density at this stage can also be
soil attained its maximum MDD with a 15% SCBA dose and explained by the ionic exchange mechanism, where the
a 10% GGBS binder in the face of GP solution. Compared Ca2+ ions introduced by GGBS reduce the thickness of the
to the mixes without admixes, there was an 18% augment diffused double-layer surrounding soil particles, thereby
in MDD for the stabilized soil. promoting flocculation and better particle packing
The enhancement in Proctor density for the lithomargic [23]. This leads to an improvement in the mechanical
soil treated with geopolymer cement containing 10% interlocking between soil particles, manifesting as an
GGBS and varying proportions of SCBA, activated with increase in the value of maximum Proctor density.
a GP solutions, can be explained by several interrelated However, beyond the optimal dosage, here specifically
mechanisms that have been documented in the literature. after 15% SCBA (and 10% GGBS), the MDD begins to
The initial increase in MDD with the addition of GGBS and decrease. This decline can be attributed to several factors.
SCBA can be attributed to the reaction of alumino-silicate First, the excessive addition of SCBA may disrupt the
materials. As reported by Davidovits [19] and further optimal Si/Al ratio, leading to an imbalance in the GP gel
elucidated by Duxson et al. [20] and Provis and Van formation. When the Si/Al ratio deviates from the optimal
Deventer [21], the presence of alkaline activators promotes range, the structure of the alumino-silicate network may
the dissolution of alumino-silicates, leading to the become less stable, potentially resulting in the formation
formation of a dense 3D alkali alumino-silicate network. of less dense or more porous phases. Additionally, the
This network, predominantly composed of amorphous introduction of too much SCBA can lead to an increase
gel phases, fills the voids within the soil matrix, thereby in unreacted and/or partially reacted particles within the
increasing the soil matrix density at a given compactive stabilizer matrix. This excessive presence of nonreactive
effort. The careful balance of silica and alumina in the materials may prevent the full densification of the soil
mix is considered crucial as it dictates the structure and matrix, reducing the effectiveness of compaction, at a
stability of the resultant GP gel. As the SCBA content constant compactive effort. The hydration process in such
increases up to 15% in the presence of constant 10% a scenario may also become less efficient, as the available
GGBS, the optimum Si/Al ratio is achieved, facilitating the GP activators might become insufficient to fully react with
formation of stable C-S-H like C-A-S-H (or N-A-S-H) gels, the increased SCBA content, leading to incomplete alkali
 Properties of Slag-Based Geopolymer-Stabilized Indian Lithomargic Soil Using Sugarcane Bagasse Ash ... 40

Figure 4: Outcomes of IS light compaction upon geopolymer stabilization at different SCBA amount.

activation [24]. This can result in a matrix with reduced in the compaction results, the alkali activation of GGBS
cohesiveness, which would negatively impact the MDD. and SCBA leads to the dissolution of alumino-silicate
materials, forming a dense, 3-D network of amorphous
aluminosilicate gels ([19][20][21]). This network not only
3.2 UCS and CBR of GP-Stabilized enhances the density but also significantly improves
Lithomargic Soil and Their Interrelationships the soil’s mechanical properties. At 15% SCBA, the Si/
Al ratio is optimal, resulting in the formation of a well-
The UCS and soaked CBR tests were executed on all connected and stable gel structure that binds the soil
blends with diverging SCBA dosages. Figure 5 shows the particles together more effectively, thereby increasing the
upshots, indicating that the CBR value could augment by UCS to 5.5 times and the soaked CBR to 36 times when
up to 35.9 times and the UCS rate by approximately 5.47 compared with the unstabilized soil matrix. The dense and
times with the addition of 10% GGBS-based GP containing cohesive matrix developed at this stage provides better
15% SCBA with insinuation to the virgin shedi soil. These resistance to deformation under load, which is reflected
enhancements in geotechnical performance are likely in the higher strength values. The compactness combined
due to the development of the “postpeak potency” of the with the strength of the GP bonds contributes to this
stabilized earth, connected with a decline in stiffness. enhanced strength. As explained by Liew et al. [22] and
The previous study has similarly reported a decline in Ho et al. [29], the C-A-S-H/N-A-S-H gels are known for their
strength performance with increased stabilizer dosage, superior binding properties, which are responsible for
attributed to a decrease in the “elastic vigor aptitudes” of the significant improvements in strength. At the optimal
the modified soil [25]. The increased strength performance 15% SCBA content, these gels fill the voids between soil
observed with GP stabilization can also be attributed to particles, reducing porosity and creating a more rigid
the reaction between the CaO content in the binder and the matrix. This enhanced gel formation is also a key factor in
aluminates and silicates existing in the alkali-activating the observed increase in CBR values, as the soil’s ability to
chemical solutions. This reaction leads to the formation resist penetration under load is greatly improved.
of calcium alumino-silicate hydrates, as documented by Further, the reduction in UCS (and CBR) beyond 15%
previous researchers [26–28]. SCBA parallels the trends observed in the compaction
Further, the increase in UCS and CBR values observed results. Beyond the optimal dosage, the excess SCBA likely
at 10% GGBS and 15% SCBA, in comparison to the disrupts the ideal Si/Al ratio, leading to the formation
unstabilized soil, is a direct consequence of the improved of weaker gel phases or crystalline products that do not
soil matrix density, chemical bonding, and particle contribute as effectively to strength. The presence of
interactions facilitated by the GP treatment. As discussed unreacted or/and partially reacted SCBA particles may
41 Shriram Marathe

Figure 5: Results of CBR and UCS upon geopolymer stabilization at various SCBA dosages.

introduce discontinuities within the soil matrix, reducing which reveals a strong linear affiliation. The high multiple
the overall strength and penetration-resistivity capacity of R value of 0.9916 specifies an almost perfect relationship,
the soil [24]. while the R2 value of 0.9834 displays that 98.34% of the
Further, understanding the relationship between changeability in CBR can be featured to UCS. The model’s
UCS and CBR is pivotal in soil stabilization, as it enables import is further accentuated by an F-value of 767.85 and a
a more holistic assessment of the mechanical properties significance F of 6.00791 × 10-13. The regression coefficient
of GP-treated lithomargic soil. Although both UCS and was found to be 6.2152, pointing to a sizeable positive
CBR are fundamental indicators of soil strength, they impact of CBR on UCS. The intercept value is 81.4983,
assess different aspects, that is, the UCS measures the with both coefficients being exceedingly significant
soil’s capacity to endure unconfined compressive loads, P-value < 0.0001. Thus, understanding this relationship
while CBR evaluates the soil’s resistance to penetration, is considered essential for accurately interpreting the
typically under conditions simulating traffic loads. strength improvements and their implications for the
Establishing a strong correlation between these two performance of stabilized soils in practical pavement
parameters offers deeper insights into the consistency engineering applications.
and reliability of the stabilization process. A robust linear
relationship, as determined through regression analysis,
allows for accurate prediction of UCS values based on 3.3 Prolonged Strength Development
CBR measurements (and vice versa). This not only affirms
the effectiveness of the stabilization method but also The prolonged strength development of the GP-stabilized
facilitates practical applications where one parameter lithomargic soil was systematically evaluated through
can be reliably inferred from the other, thus optimizing UCS and soaked CBR tests conducted at various systematic
time and resources in field and laboratory evaluations. curing intervals from 0 to 56 days. The results are,
Moreover, the importance of this relationship highlights respectively, presented in Figures 7 and 8.
the impact of geo-polymerization on enhancing both
UCS and CBR concurrently. The ability to model this
correlation with high statistical confidence evidenced by 3.3.1 Prolonged UCS Test Results
metrics such as the multiple R, R², F-value, and P-values
provides compelling empirical support for the success of The UCS testing was carried out following the ASTM
the GP treatment. method for prolonged curing [30]. The soil specimens
Accordingly, the developed regression analysis were stored in a desiccator containing a small amount of
examining the correlation between CBR and UCS values water to maintain a constant relative humidity, with the
of GP-stabilized lithomargic soil is shown in Figure 6, temperature controlled at approximately 26–29°C [15].
 Properties of Slag-Based Geopolymer-Stabilized Indian Lithomargic Soil Using Sugarcane Bagasse Ash ... 42

Figure 6: Relationship between UCS and CBR upon geopolymer stabilization

Figure 7: Prolonged UCS development for the selected GP-stabilized lithomargic soil blends.
43 Shriram Marathe

This method ensured that the samples were cured under resistant to deformation under load, which is critical for
consistent environmental conditions, which is crucial pavement subgrade applications where high CBR values
for obtaining reliable results. The pure lithomargic soil are essential for long-term performance. The higher CBR
showed no significant change in UCS over the entire values observed in the optimized soil mix are attributed
curing period. This highlights the natural soil’s lack to the enhanced GP network formed by the inclusion of
of self-cementing properties, making it unsuitable for SCBA. The increased Si/Al ratio resulting from SCBA
applications requiring high strength. In stark contrast, addition leads to a more stable soil structure [24], capable
the GP-stabilized soils exhibited a marked increase in UCS of withstanding higher loads and resisting water-induced
over time. At 0 day, the UCS of the optimized GP-stabilized weakening in long run.
soil (10% GGBS + 15% SCBA) was 602 kPa, far exceeding
the 262 kPa recorded for the GP-stabilized soil without
SCBA. This early strength gain can be attributed to the 3.4 Microstructure Analysis
rapid formation of a GP matrix, which effectively binds
the soil particles. The microstructure of the GP-stabilized lithomargic soil
As curing progressed, both stabilized soil samples was thoroughly investigated using scanning electron
continued to gain strength. The trend continued, with microscopy (SEM). High-resolution images were captured
the UCS of the optimized soil reaching 3.84 times higher by scanning the samples with a focused electron beam,
strength at 56 days when compared to the same at 0 providing detailed insights into crystal orientation
day. This continuous strength gain is indicative of the and surface morphology at two distinct magnification
ongoing GP process, where the formation of C-S-H and levels [31]. The SEM analysis was crucial in verifying the
C-(Na)-A-S-H gels densifies the soil matrix, reducing formation of the alumino-silicate structure, which results
porosity and enhancing particle cohesion. The superior from the reaction between GGBS and SCBA in the presence
performance of the optimized soil mix can be attributed of the GP solution. This action plays a key role in binding
to the synergistic effect of SCBA, which, when combined the soil particles together while reducing voids.
with GGBS, enhances the Si/Al ratio, leading to a more Figure 9 presents SEM images of the optimized soil
robust and cohesive GP network. This network not only sample (G-15 mix) after 1 week of casting, compacted
provides higher early strength but also sustains strength to Proctor densities, revealing a gray-colored,
development over an extended curing period. densely packed, flake-like structure indicative of a
robust alumino-silicate matrix. This morphology is
characteristic of the hydration products formed from the
3.3.2 Prolonged Soaked CBR Test Results interaction of precursor with the GP activator solution.
The polymerization process fosters the development
The CBR tests were similarly conducted at intervals of this dense, flake-like aluminosilicate structure,
of 4, 14, 21, 28, and 56 days to evaluate the penetration significantly reducing the porosity within the soil matrix.
resistance capacity of the soils under soaked conditions The GP activator solution is instrumental in the formation
[15]. The results, depicted in Figure 8, show a clear trend of this compact structure, resulting in a durable and
of increasing CBR values for the stabilized soils, in contrast mechanically resilient material. The SEM analysis further
to the pure lithomargic soil, which maintained a low and demonstrates that the sample exhibits a highly compact
constant CBR value of 2.4% throughout the curing period. and uniform microstructure, free from significant cracks
For the GP-stabilized soil with 10% GGBS (0% SCBA), or discontinuities. This is attributed to the polymerization
the CBR value increased significantly from 29.7% at 4 compounds formed through the alkali activation of
days to 192% at 56 days. The optimized soil mix (10% the GGBS-SCBA precursors, which effectively seal pore
GGBS + 15% SCBA) demonstrated even more pronounced spaces and enhance particle packing. The deposition of
improvements, with CBR values rising from 88.7% at 4 polymerization, that is, hydration compounds (like C-A-S-
days to 269% at 56 days. This substantial enhancement in H, N-A-S-H) within the soil matrix, also greatly improves
CBR is largely due to the densification of the soil matrix, the bonding between soil particles [22]. This enhanced
driven by the formation of a strong alumino-silicate bonding directly contributes to the increased UCS and
network during the GP process. The rapid increase in CBR higher resistance to penetration, as evidenced by the CBR
values, particularly during the early curing stages (4–21 test results revealed earlier.
days), suggests that the soil matrix achieves significant The morphological changes observed in Figure
strength within a short time frame. This makes it highly 9 clearly illustrate the transformation of the soil’s
 Properties of Slag-Based Geopolymer-Stabilized Indian Lithomargic Soil Using Sugarcane Bagasse Ash ... 44

Figure 8: Prolonged CBR development for the selected GP-stabilized lithomargic soil blends.

(a) Magnification x500 and 50 micron scale (a) Magnification x1000 and 10 micron scale

Figure 9: Scanning electron micrograph of optimal GP-stabilized shedi soil matrix.

microstructure due to the formation of GP gel, which is 3.5 Pavement Design and the Cost Analysis
crucial for understanding and ensuring the enhanced
mechanical properties of the GP-stabilized soil. These For rigid pavement design applications, consistent with
SEM results provide a clear explanation for the observed IRC: SP:62, the modulus of subgrade reaction (k) can be
improvements in the soil’s strength and durability, derived from the saturated CBR value (soaked) of the
offering a microscopic perspective on the macroscopic earth. Given the increase in the saturated CBR value of
benefits achieved through GP stabilization. GP-modified lithomargic soil subgrades, it is possible
45 Shriram Marathe

Figure 10: Typical low-volume flexible pavement design composition (IRC: SP-72).

to develop cost-effective design compositions for rigid and entirely removes the need for the improved subgrade
pavements on low-volume rural roads. The k-value layer while retaining the same 300-mm thickness for the
improved from 21 MPa/m for unmodified soil to 140 MPa/m GP-modified compacted subgrade. The cost analysis for
at the optimum mix dosage, representing approximately producing 1 m3 of GP-stabilized soil involved calculating
a 567% enhancement. Similarly, for flexible pavements, the expenses associated with each material used in the
following the guidelines in IRC: SP-72, a typical pavement stabilization process. The mix includes 10% GGBS by
composition for unmodified and GP-modified lithomargic weight, equating to 178 kg at a unit cost of INR 3 per kg,
soil subgrades is illustrated in Figure 10, designed for resulting in a total cost of INR 534. Additionally, 15%
traffic of 1.5 million standard axles, categorized under SCBA by weight is used, amounting to 267 kg at INR 1 per
traffic category T-9 as indicated by IRC: SP-72 [17]. From the kg, totaling INR 267. Liquid sodium silicate is required at
ballpark pavement design symphony, using the optimized 68.46 kg, costing INR 3 per kg, bringing the total for this
GP modifier, a 45% reduction in material usage was component to INR 205.38. Sodium hydroxide flakes are
achieved for stabilized lithomargic soil when compared added at 3.87 kg, with a cost of INR 13.5 per kg, totaling
with that of the unstabilized soil. INR 52.29. To achieve the required water-to-binder (w/b)
Further, a comprehensive cost analysis was ratio and OMC, 211.36 kg of water is incorporated, costing
performed to evaluate the economic advantages of INR 0.05 per kg, amounting to INR 10.57. Altogether, the
utilizing GP stabilization in pavement construction. total material cost for producing 1 m3 of GP-stabilized soil
The analysis incorporated material costs based on the is INR 1069.24. In terms of pavement application, this
2018 rates provided by the Public Works Department of unit cost translates into a total expenditure of INR 438.27
Mangalore, India, along with price estimates from bulk m2 for constructing the lower layers of pavement using
suppliers for the stabilizing agents used in constructing GP-modified soil. This offers a cost-effective alternative
the lower layers of pavement. The cost savings were compared to the conventional design, which incurs a
determined by comparing a conventional pavement higher cost of INR 490 per m2. This results in a cost saving
design with a GP-modified design, as illustrated in of INR 51.73 per square meter. For a standard 1-kilometer
Figure 10. The tentative conventional design specifies rural road with a width of 3.75 m, the total savings
a granular subbase (GSB) thickness of 250 mm, an amount to approximately INR 193,979. This substantial
improved subgrade of 200 mm (with a CBR > 10%), cost reduction, combined with the improved performance
and a compacted subgrade of 300 mm. In contrast, the characteristics of GP-stabilized soil, positions it as a
GP-modified design reduces the GSB thickness to 125 mm highly attractive option for rural road construction,
 Properties of Slag-Based Geopolymer-Stabilized Indian Lithomargic Soil Using Sugarcane Bagasse Ash ... 46

especially in regions where cost efficiency and long-term indicate that the approach can lead to more economical
durability are critical considerations. and sustainable pavement designs for low-volume roads.
Hence, the implementation of GP stabilization Moreover, the consumption of industrial spin-offs
in pavement design not only enhances the structural such as SCBA and blast kiln slag addresses significant
performance of pavements but also offers significant environmental concerns by providing a sustainable
economic advantages. When applied to large-scale alternative to conventional disposal methods. This
infrastructure projects, these savings can contribute to contributes to reducing the burden on landfills and
the development of more sustainable and cost-effective mitigating environmental degradation. Overall, the
road networks, particularly in developing regions. study offers valuable insights for practicing engineers,
However, precise design for both flexible and rigid promoting the adoption of innovative stabilization
pavements requires studying actual field conditions to techniques that enhance subgrade performance while
develop appropriate composition designs. The results are ensuring cost-effectiveness and sustainability in pavement
promising, indicating substantial savings in natural or construction.
virgin materials for pavement construction and reduced Future investigations may be broadened to examine
construction costs, thereby promoting sustainability and further performance characteristics, including durability
economic efficiency in construction [1,10]. Additionally, assessments (such as alternative wetting-drying and
this study proffers a sustainable resolution for the disposal freeze-thaw tests), triaxial characteristics, permeability,
issues associated with SCBA and blast furnace slag, which consolidation, rutting actions on pavement models, cyclic
would otherwise be destined for nondegradable landfills. loading experiments, splitting tension tests, and retained
endurance. Such investigations would enhance confidence
in the use of GP stabilizing combinations for shedi soil

4 Conclusions and Future Scope subgrades. Furthermore, pavement designs informed by

contemporaneous traffic data and field circumstances
have to be examined to use these stabilizing strategies
This work underscores the considerable potential of
across low-volume and high-volume roadway contexts.
geopolymeric cement, especially designed with GGBS
and SCBA, for the stabilization of lithomargic soils. The
optimal geotechnical qualities attained with a dose of
10% slag and 15% SCBA with GP solution (composed of References
caustic soda and water glass) have been identified as the
most suitable. The elevated CBR and UCS values of the [1] S. Marathe, A.U.R.U.R.R. Shankar, Investigations on
Bio-enzyme Stabilized Pavement Subgrades of Lateritic,
stabilized soil highlight the efficacy of GP-based treatments
Lithomargic and Blended Soils, Int. J. Pavement Res. Technol.
in enhancing subgrade effectiveness. The significant
16 (2023) 15–25. [Link]
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