Chloroplast
Chloroplast, structure within the cells of plants and green algae that is the site of
photosynthesis, the process by which light energy is converted to chemical energy, resulting in
the production of oxygen and energy-rich organic compounds.
Characteristics of chloroplasts
Chloroplasts play a key role in the process of photosynthesis. light reaction in the grana and
thylakoid membrane and dark reaction in the stroma.
Chloroplasts are a type of plastid—a round, oval, or disk-shaped body that is involved in the
synthesis and storage of foodstuffs. Chloroplasts are distinguished from other types of plastids
by their green colour, which results from the presence pigment, chlorophyll. A function of
pigment is to absorb light energy for the process of photosynthesis.
Chloroplasts are roughly 1–2 μm (1 μm = 0.001 mm) thick and 5–7 μm in diameter. They are
enclosed in a chloroplast envelope, which consists of a double membrane with outer and inner
layers, between which is a gap called the intermembrane space. A third, internal membrane,
extensively folded and characterized by the presence of closed disks (or thylakoids), is known
as the thylakoid membrane. In most higher plants, the thylakoids are arranged in tight stacks
called grana (singular granum). Grana are connected by stromal lamellae, extensions that run
from one granum, through the stroma, into a neighbouring granum. The thylakoid membrane
envelops a central aqueous region known as the thylakoid lumen. The space between the inner
membrane and the thylakoid membrane is filled with stroma, a matrix containing dissolved
enzymes, starch granules, and copies of the chloroplast genome.
Mitochondria
Mitochondria (Power house of cell)
They are tiny bodies of varying shape(cylindrical,rod-like, spherical)distributed in cytoplasm.
Each mitochondria is surrounded by double membrane. Outer membrane is porous. Inner
membrane has folds and therefore have large surface [Link] folds are called cristae and
contain small rounded bodies called F1 particles or oxysomes.
The interior cavity of mitochondria is filled with gel like matrix which contain few small size
ribosomes, circular DNA,phosphate granules.
Functions of Mitochondria
1) They are sites of cellular respiration.
2) They uses oxygen to oxidise carbohydrates and fats present in the cell to carbon dioxide and
water. Oxidation releases energy, a portion of which is used to form ATP. Since mitochondria
synthesises energy rich compound ATP it is called powerhouse of cell. ATP is called energy
carrier or energy currency of the cell.
3) Mitochondria are able to make some of their own proteins,so they are regarded as
semiautonomous organelles.
Vacuole
The term “vacuole” means “empty space”. A vacuole is an organelle in cells which functions to
hold various solutions or materials. This includes solutions that have been created and are being
stored or excreted, and those that have been phagocytized, or engulfed, by the cell.
Cell Division
Cell cycle
Cell division is a fundamental process through which organisms generate new cells. This
process is crucial for growth, development, repair, and reproduction. Different types of cell
division occur depending on the organism involved. Prokaryotes, such as bacteria, divide
through a relatively simple process called binary fission, while eukaryotic organisms, which
include plants, animals, and fungi, typically use more complex mechanisms like mitosis and
meiosis.
In eukaryotes, mitosis is the process by which a cell divides to produce two genetically
identical daughter cells. This type of division is essential for growth and repair in multicellular
organisms. During mitosis, the cell’s genetic material, contained in the form of chromosomes, is
duplicated and equally distributed between the two daughter cells, ensuring each receives a full
set of genes. Mitosis is responsible for a wide range of cellular activities, from replacing dead or
damaged cells, to the development of tissues and organs.
Meiosis, on the other hand, is a form of cell division that is specifically associated with sexual
reproduction. Unlike mitosis, meiosis results in four non-identical daughter cells, each with half
the number of chromosomes as the parent cell. This reduction in chromosome number is crucial
because it ensures that when gametes (sperm and egg cells) fuse during fertilization, the
resulting offspring have the correct number of chromosomes. Additionally, meiosis promotes
genetic variation through processes such as recombination and independent assortment, which
shuffle the genetic material and create unique combinations of genes.