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CHAPTER-: OSCILLATOR
1. INTRODUCTION
• An oscillator is a non-rotating electronic device that converts dc energy into an ac
energy of frequency ranging from a few Hz to many GHz.
• It generates many different types of signals that can be used in amplitude modulation,
superheterodyne receivers, clocks, TV, oscilloscopes, etc. The term “generating” does
not mean that it creates energy, oscillator only acts as energy converter.
• An oscillator circuit consists of an amplifier with positive feedback and passive
elements. The amplifier with positive feedback uses the feedback signal instead of an
input signal. The output frequency depends on the passive components (resistor,
inductor, and capacitor) employed in the circuit and can be varied as per needs. By
using variable components, oscillators may provide fixed or variable frequency.
• Broadly speaking, oscillators are classified into two categories viz. harmonic oscillators
and relaxation oscillators.
• In harmonic oscillators, the energy always flows in one direction from the active to
passive components. However, in relaxation oscillators, the energy is exchanged
between the active and passive components.
• In harmonic oscillators, the frequency of oscillations is determined by the feedback
path. However, in relaxation oscillators, the frequency is determined by time constants
specifically, the charge and discharge time constants during the exchange of energy.
• Harmonic oscillators can be used to generate low-distortion sinusoidal output
waveforms, but relaxation oscillators can only generate non-sinusoidal waveforms
such as sawtooth, square, or triangular.
• One can argue that the alternator generates the sinusoidal ac power of 50 Hz so it
should consider an oscillator, but it is not true. An alternator has moving parts and
produces ac energy of power frequency only whereas an oscillator can generate the
energy of high frequency.
Some other advantages of oscillators are

(i) Variable frequency output is possible.

(ii) Portable and cheap in cost.

(iii) Due to the absence of moving parts, operating efficiency is high.

(iv) Highly reliable to get a constant frequency.

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(v) Output voltage contains comparatively fewer harmonics.

2. BASICS OF OSCILLATOR
• As discussed, an oscillator circuit is used to generate signals and these signals can
be sinusoidal, square wave, triangular, etc.
• The feedback circuit is the most important part of the oscillator and by studying
the feedback circuit we can determine the conditions for sustained oscillations.
• Consider a figure 13.1 contains a positive feedback network.

Fig. 13.1: Positive feedback block diagram

• In starting, a small input signal is given Vin at the terminal dc and the ac voltage
will be AVin.
• This voltage drives a feedback circuit which is calibrated for a particular frequency
usually resonant frequency and the feedback voltage that returns to point a is given
by
Vf = AβVin
• If phase shift through the amplifier and the feedback circuit is zero, then Vf is in
phase with the input signal.
• Now we connect terminals a and b and remove the input signal V in and then Vf
drives the input terminal of the amplifier.
Now, based on the value of Aβ we have three cases:
Case 1: If Aβ is less than unity, AβVin will be less than Vin and the output signal will
die out.
Case 2: If Aβ is more than unity, AβVin will be more than Vin and the output signal will
build up.
Case 3: If Aβ is equal to unity, AβVin will be equal to Vin and the output signal will have
sustained oscillations.

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(a) Oscillations die-out (b) Oscillations build-up (c) sustained oscillation

Fig. 13.2: Oscillations based on the magnitude Aβ
• In the practical circuit, there is no input signal and the magnitude of Aβ is made
slightly greater than 1 and the system starts oscillating by amplifying noise voltage.
2.1. Barkhausen criterion
Vf
Vi = Vs + Vf = Vs + βV0, here β =
Vo

(Vs + βVo)A = VβVo

AVs + AβVo = Vo
AVs = Vo(1 – Aβ)
Vo A
Therefore, =
Vs 1 – Aβ

Output voltage V
Af = = o
Input voltage Vs

A
Af =
1 – Aβ

Where A is the feedback factor or loop gain, if Aβ is 1 then Af = ∞, thus gain

becomes infinity, i.e., output without any input. Therefore, amplifier in this
condition works as an oscillator. This condition of Aβ = 1, is called Barkhausen
criterion. To sustain oscillations two conditions must be satisfied:
• The loop gain of the circuit must be equal to 1.
• The phase shift around the circuit must be 0 or multiple of 360.
These conditions are called Barkhausen criterion.

So, an oscillator must contain three elements, namely:

(i) Oscillatory circuit or frequency determining circuit

(ii) Amplifier

(iii) Positive feedback network

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Fig. 13.3: Block diagram of oscillator

The operating frequency ranges of various types of most commonly used oscillators
are:

Type of oscillator Approximate frequency range

Wien bridge oscillator 1 Hz – 1 MHz
Phase shift oscillator 1 Hz – 10 MHz
Hartley oscillator 10 kHz – 100 MHz
Colpitts’s oscillator 10 kHz – 100 MHz
Crystal oscillator Fixed frequency
Table 13.1: Commonly used oscillators with their operating frequency ranges

Did you know

According to the magnitude, frequencies are divided into audio frequency (20 Hz - 20 kHz),
radio frequency (20 kHz - 30 MHz), low frequency (100 - 500 kHz), video frequency (0 - 5
MHz), high frequency (1.5 - 30 MHz), very high frequency (30 - 300 MHz), ultra-high
frequency (300 - 3000 MHz) and microwave frequency (above 3 GHz).

Problem 1
For output ranging from 50 MHz to 100 MHz, which of the following oscillator is/are required?
A. Wein bridge oscillator
B. Phase shift oscillator
C. Hartley’s oscillator
D. Clapp oscillator
Solution:
The operating frequency ranges of various types of most commonly used oscillators are:
Type of oscillator Approximate frequency range
Wien bridge oscillator 1 Hz – 1 MHz

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Phase shift oscillator 1 Hz – 10 MHz
Hartley oscillator 10 kHz – 100 MHz
Colpitts’s oscillator 10 kHz – 100 MHz
Crystal oscillator Fixed frequency
Hence, option C is correct.

3. RC OSCILLATORS
• RC oscillators are generally used for generating audio frequencies. Also output of this
oscillator has proper waveform and good frequency stability.
• With the advent of IC technology, RC network is the only feasible solution as it is very
difficult to make a too high value inductance in an integrated circuit. There are two
commonly used RC oscillators.
(i) Phase shift oscillator
(ii) Wein bridge oscillator
• Block diagram of RC oscillator is shown in figure 13.4 below.

Fig. 13.4: Block diagram of RC oscillator

Here, amplifier can be FET, BJT and op-amp. The phase network contains resistors and
capacitors so as to produce a phase sift of 180° at desired frequency.
3.1. Phase shift oscillator with FET
Consider a figure 13.5 in which FET is used as amplifier and three section of RC
phase shift network is connected.

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Fig. 13.5: Phase shift oscillator with FET

The feedback used here is voltage series feedback. The network phase shift is +180°.
This phase shift of +180° is obtained when XC = √6R

1
= √6R
2 + fC
1
f=
2RC 6

1
Also, due to this phase shift, β = .
29

To satisfy Barkhausen criterion, amplifier must provide gain (A) of 29 and phase shift
of –180°.

1
So, Aβ = 29  =1
29

Aβ = –180° + 180° = 0

The frequency may be varied from a few Hz to 200 Hz by using different sets of
resistors and capacitors.

3.2. Phase shift oscillator with BJT

In this oscillator n-p-n transistor in CE configuration is used to provide –180°

phase shift. Figure 13.6 shows the phase shift oscillator with BJT.

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Fig. 13.6: BJT phase shift network

Here, R’ = R – hie
Where, hie is amplifier state input resistance.
The frequency of oscillation is given by
1 1
f=
2RC 6 + 4k

Rc 29
Where k = and sustained oscillation is obtained if hfe > 4k + 23 +
R k

Operation:
• The circuit is set into the oscillation by any variation caused in the base current.
This variation is amplified in collector circuit.
• The RC network produces a phase shift of 180° between output and input
voltages. Since CE produce a –180° phase shift, so total phase shift is 0°.
• Thus, sustained variation in collector current between saturation and cut-off
values are obtained.

3.3. Phase shift oscillator with op-amp

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• In this, the op-amp is used in the inverting mode. So, inverting terminal is
shifted by 180° and by adjusting resistance value we can obtain gain of 29
as shown in figure 13.7.

Fig. 13.7: Phase shift oscillator with op-amp

RF
Gain = = 29
R1

Frequency of oscillation is given by

1
fo =
2 6RC
Advantages of phase shift oscillators are as follows:
(i) The output obtained is sinusoidal with less distortion.
(ii) It provides good frequency stability.
(iii) It is much simpler circuit as it does not required stabilization arrangements.
(iv) The wide frequency range is possible.
Disadvantages of phase shift oscillators are as follows:
(i) To develop large feedback voltage, high voltage (12 V) battery is required.
(ii) The output is small.
(ii) As compared to Wein bridge oscillator, frequency stability is less.

Problem 2
An RC phase shift oscillator with BJT has to be designed to provide a sine wave of frequency 1
kHz. If the value of capacitance is 0.010 μF, calculate the value of the resistances.
Solution:
For an RC phase shift oscillator with BJT,
Frequency of oscillation is given as
1
fo =
2RC 10

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Using the relationship, we can evaluate the resistance as
1
R=
2fC 10
1
R= = 3.3 kΩ
2  100  0.016  10–6  10

3.4. Wein bridge oscillator

In Wein bridge oscillator, two transistors (Q1 and Q2) are used as shown in figure
13.8. It is essentially a two-stage amplifier with an RC bridge circuit.

Fig. 13.8: Wein bridge oscillator

• In this arrangement the output of the second stage is supplied back to the
feedback network and the voltage across the parallel combination C2R2 is fed
to the input of the first stage.
• The circuits uses both positive and negative feedbacks. The positive feedback
is through R1, C1, R2, C2 to transistor Q1 and negative feedback is through the
voltage divider R3–R4 to the emitter of transistor Q1.
• In the bridge circuit R1 in series with C1, R3, R4 and R2 in parallel with C2 from
the four arms. The bridge will be balanced only when
 R2   j 
R3   = R 4 R1 – 
1 + jC2R2   C1 

 j 
R2R3 = R4(1 + jC2R2)  R1 – 
 C1 

C2 jR 4
Or R2R3 – R4R1 – R2R4 + – jC2R2R1R4 = 0
C1 C1

Separating real and imaginary terms,

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C2
R2R3 – R4R1 – R2R4 = 0
C1

C2 R3 R1 R4
= – and – C2R2R1R4 = 0
C1 R4 R2 C1

1
=
C1C2R1R2

1
Therefore, f=
2 C1C2R1R2

If, C1 = C2 = C and R1 = R2 = R
1
Then, f =
2RC
R3 = 2R4
R3 + R 4
The amplifier voltage gain, A =
R4

R3
A= +1 = 3
R4

1
Due to this feedback network must attenuates so, Aβ = 1
3
• Op-amp Wein bridge oscillator circuit is given in figure 13.9.

Fig. 13.9: Wein bridge oscillator using op-amp

At balanced Wein bridge, resonant frequency is given by
1
fo =
2RC
Also, gain, A = 3
R2
1+ =3
R1

R2 = 2R1

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Advantages of Wein bridge oscillator are as follows:
(i) The overall gain is high.
(ii) The frequency of oscillation can be easily varied by varying capacitance C1 and
C2.
(iii) It proved stable low distortion sinusoidal output over a wide range of
frequency.
Disadvantages of Wein bridge oscillator are as follows:
(i) The circuit needs two transistor and large number of other components.
(ii) The maximum frequency output is limited.

Problem 3
For the given oscillator, find then frequency of sinusoidal oscillation in Hz.

Solution:
The given circuit acts as Wein bridge oscillator using op-amp.
Therefore, frequency of oscillations is given as
1
fo =
2RC
1
fo = = 20 Hz
2  2  103  4  10–6

Problem 4
For the given oscillator, the frequency of sinusoidal oscillation is _____ Hz.

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A. 20
B. 10
C. 30
D. None of these
Solution:
2
|Gain| = =2
1
Since |Gain| < 3, sinusoidal oscillations cannot start.
Hence, option D is correct.

4. LC OSCILLATORS
• LC oscillators are used for generating high frequency outputs ranging from 10 kHz
to 100 MHz.
• The general from of oscillator is given in figure 13.10. An amplifier can be BJT, FET
or op-amp and Z1, Z2 and Z3 are made up of passive elements (L and C).

Fig. 13.10: General form of oscillator

• Z1 and Z2 serves as an ac voltage divider for the output voltage and feedback signal.
The voltage across Z2 is the feedback signal.
• We can represent amplifier by h-parameters by taking assumptions that,
(a) hre is negligible small and thus, the feedback source, hreVout is negligible.
1
(b) hoe of the transistor is very small so, is very large and can be removed from
hoe

equivalent circuit.

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Fig. 13.11: Equivalent circuit of LC oscillator

The load impedance between the terminals C and E is given by
ZL = Z1 [Z3 + (Z2 hie )]

By solving, we get,
Z1[hie (Z2 + Z3 ) + Z2Z3 )]
ZL =
hie (Z1 + Z2 + Z3 ) + Z1Z2 + Z2Z3

The voltage gain of a CE amplifier is given as

–hfeZL
A=
hie

The output voltage between terminal 1 and 2 is

 Z2hie 
Vout = Z3 +  I1
 hie + Z2 

 h (Z + Z3 ) + Z2Z3 
Vout =  ie 2  I1
 Z2 + hie 
The voltage feedback to input terminals 2 and 3 is given by
Z2hie
Vf = I1
Z2 + hie

Vf Z2hie
Feedback factor, β = =
Vout hie (Z2 + Z3 ) + Z2Z3

To satisfy barkhausen criterion, Aβ = 1

–hfeZL  Z2hie 
  = –1
hie  hie (Z2 + Z3 ) + Z2Z3 

After putting ZL and by solving,

hie(Z1 + Z2 + Z3) + Z1Z2(1 + hfe) + Z2Z3 = 0 …(i)
Thus is the general equation of the oscillator.
• There are many different types of LC oscillators.
(i) Colpitts’s oscillator
(ii) Hartley oscillator
(iii) Clapp oscillator

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(iv) Crystal oscillator

Did you know

1
A pure tank circuit is made up of inductor and capacitor and has resonance frequency of
LC
rad/sec. Even in case of practical tank circuit, we can obtain the same resonance frequency by
varying the magnitude of inductor and capacitor.

4.1. Colpitts’s oscillator

• This oscillator contains self-biased n-p-n transistor as shown in figure 13.12. The
circuit consist of radio frequency choke (RFC) which allow the dc current but offers
high allow the dc current but offers high impedance to high frequency current.

Fig. 13.12: Colpitts’s oscillator

• Phase shift network consists of two capacitors (C1 and C2) and one inductor (L). The
voltage developed across C2 provide the regenerative feedback required for
sustained oscillations.
• Transistor itself produce a phase shift of 180° and another phase shift of 180° is
provided by the capacitive feedback. Thus, a total phase shift of 360° is obtained.
Now, if Aβ exceeds unity, oscillations are sustained in the circuit.
Frequency of oscillation is given as
–j –j
Put Z1 = ; Z2 = ; Z3 = jL in above equation,
C1 C2

 –j j   –j j   –j 
hie  – +   (1 + hfe ) +   jL = 0
 C1 C2   C1 C2   C2 

 1 1  1+h 1
–jhie  + – L  – 2 fe + =0

 1C C 2   C1C2 C2

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Equating imaginary component to zero.

 1 1 
hie  + – L  = 0
 C1 C2 
1 1
+ = L
C1 C2

C1 + C2
2 =
LC1C2

C1 + C2
=
LC1C2

1 C1 + C2
f=
2 LC1C2

1 1 1 1 
f=  + 
2 L  C1 C2 

1 1
f=
2 LCeq

Now, equating the real component to zero

1 + hfe L
2
=
 C1C2 C2

1 + hfe = 2LC1
C1 + C2
1 + hfe =  LC1
LC1C2

C1
1 + hfe = 1 +
C2

C1
hfe =
C2

C1
So, feedback factor, β =
C2

1 C
Since, Aβ  1 for sustain oscillation, A  and A  2
β C1

Problem 5
Which oscillator is characterized by a split capacitor in its tank circuit?
A. Wien bridge oscillator
B. Colpitts’s oscillator

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C. Phase shift oscillator
D. Hartley’s oscillator
Solution:
(i) Colpitts’s oscillator consists of one inductor and one split capacitor in the tank circuit.
(ii) A capacitor with a centre tap is used in the feedback system of the Colpitts’s oscillator.
(iii) It is used for the generation of sinusoidal output signals with very high frequencies.
Hence, option B is correct.

Problem 6
A Colpitts’s oscillator is designed with C1 = 7500 pf and C2 = 200 pf. Determine the range of
variable inductance if frequency of oscillation is to vary between 900 kHz to 1500 kHz.
Solution:
1 1 1
= +
Ceq C1 C2

1 1 1
= +
Ceq 7500 200

7500  200
Ceq = = 197.81 pF
7700
1 1
We know, fo =
2 LCeq

1 1
fo2 =
LC2
4 eq

1
L=
4 Ceqfo2
2

For, fo = 900 kHz,

1
L=
4  1.94.81  10–12  (900  103 )2
2

L = 0.161 mH
For, fo = 1500 kHz,
1
L= = 0.057 mH
2
4  194.81  10–12  (1500  103 )2

4.2. Hartley oscillator

• Circuit arrangement of Hartley oscillator is given in figure 13.13. In this phase shift
network consists of two inductors L1 and L2 and a capacitor.

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Fig. 13.13: Hartley oscillator

• The voltage across L2 forms the feedback voltage. The capacitor C2 is used to provide
grounding to inductors L1 and L2.
• Due to two inductors, there will be mutual inductance M and the effective inductance
will be Leq = L1 + L2 + 2M
Frequency of oscillations is given as
–j
Put Z1 = jL1 + jM; Z2 = jL2 + jM and Z3 = in above general equation,
C

 j 
hie (jL1 + jM) + (jL 2 + jM) – + (jL1 + jM) (jL2 + jM) + (1 + hfe) + (jL2
 C 

 –j 
+ jM)   =0
 C 

 1   1 
jhie L1 + L2 + 2M – 2  – 2 (L2 + M) (L1 + M)(1 + hfe ) – 2  = 0
  C   C
Equating the imaginary part to zero.
 1 
hie L1 + L2 + 2M – 2  = 0
  C

1
2C =
L1 + L2 + 2M

1
=
C(L1 + L2 + 2M)

1
=
CL eq

1
f=
2 CL eq

Equating the real part to zero,

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1
(L1 + M)(1 + hfe) – =0
2C
1
(1 + hfe) = 2
 C(L1 + M)

C[L1 + L2 + 2M]
1 + hfe =
C(L1 + M)

L1 + M + L2 + M
1 + hfe =
L2 + M

L2 + M
1 + hfe = 1 +
L1 + M

L2 + M
hfe =
L1 + M

L2 + M
So, the feedback factor, β = hfe =
L1 + M

Advantages of Hartley oscillator are as follows:

(i) It is well suitable for RF range applications.
(ii) The output amplitude is not proportional with the variable frequency range and
the amplitude remains near constant.
Disadvantages of Hartley oscillator are as follows:
(i) For low frequency the inductor value become large, and circuit become bulky.
(ii) The output contains high amount of harmonics, and the waveform will be a
distorted sine wave.

Problem 7
For the Hartley oscillator, inductance values are 1 mH and 100 H and mutual inductance is 50
H. If capacitance is 100 pF, then oscillation frequency is _____ kHz.
Solution:
For the Hartley oscillator,
Effective inductance, Leq = L1 + L2 + 2M
Leq = 10–3 + 100 × 10–6 + 2 × 50 × 10–6 = 1200 H
1
Frequency of oscillation, fo =
2 L eqC

1
fo = = 459 kHz
–6
2 1200  10  100  10–12

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4.3. Crystal oscillator
• In applications like digital clocks, communication transmitters, etc. great stability is
required. To obtain this, electronic resonant circuit is replaced by mechanically
vibrating crystal as shown in figure 13.14.

Fig. 13.14: Crystal oscillator

• A crystal is usually made up of quartz and has a high degree of stability and operates
at constant frequency at which it is originally cut to operate.
• A quartz crystal works on the property of piezoelectric effect i.e., electromechanical
characteristic in response to a voltage applied across the crystal.
• The crystal is mounted between two metal plates. Its action can be represented by
an electrical resonant circuit as shown in figure 13.15.

(a) Crystal mounting (b) Electrical equivalent

Fig. 13.15: Quartz crystal
• CM is the capacitance of mounting electrodes. The equivalent crystal Q is high up to
106.
• Due to the presence of two capacitance, there are two resonant frequencies.
1
Series resonant frequency, fs =
2 LC

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C
1+
1 CM
Parallel resonant frequency, fp =
2 LC
Also, fp > fs
• To stabilize the frequency of an oscillators, a crystal may be operated at either its
series or parallel resonant frequency.
• Crystal oscillator can be used either in series resonance and parallel resonance as
shown in figure 13.16 (a) and figure 13.16 (b).

Fig. 13.16(a): Oscillator with crystal operating in series resonance

Fig. 13.16(b): Oscillator with crystal operating in parallel resonance

Advantages of crystal oscillator are as follows:
(i) It is simple circuit as no tank circuit is required.
(ii) The Q-factor is very high up to 106.
(iii) Different oscillation frequencies can be held by simply replacing one crystal with
another.
Disadvantages of crystal oscillator are as follows:
(i) The tuning range is very limited.
(ii) The crystal oscillators are fragile and can only be used in low power circuit.

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Problem 8
Which of the following oscillator gives good frequency stability?
A. Hartley oscillator
B. Colpitts’s oscillator
C. Crystal oscillator
D. RC phase shift oscillator
Solution:
A crystal oscillator is the most stable frequency oscillator.
Advantages of crystal oscillator are:
(i) The crystal oscillator is possible to obtain a very precise and stable frequency of
oscillations.
(ii) It has very low frequency drift due to change in temperature and other parameters.
(iii) The Q is very high.
(iv) It has automatic amplitude control.
Disadvantages of crystal oscillator are:

(i) These are suitable for high frequency applications.

(ii) Crystals of low fundamental frequencies are not easily available.
Hence, option C is correct.

Problem 9
In a crystal oscillator, a crystal has thickness of t, if the thickness is reduced by 2% then the
frequency will be
A. Increase by 2%
B. Decrease by 2%
C. Increase by 1%
D. Decrease by 1%
Solution:
1
In a crystal oscillators, f 
t
So, f will increase by 2%
Hence, option A is correct.

Problem 10

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For the crystal oscillator, mounting capacitance is 1 pf and capacitance is 0.06 pf. The
percentage by which parallel resonant frequency is greater than the series resonant frequency
is______
Solution:
For the crystal oscillator,
Mounting capacitance, Cm = 1 pF
Capacitance, C = 0.06 pF

C
1+
1 Cm
Parallel frequency, fp =
2 LC
1 1
Series frequency, fs = 
2 LC

fp C
= 1+
fs Cm

fp 0.06
= 1+
fs 1

fp
= 1.06 = 1.03
fs

fp
– 1 = 1.03 – 1 = 0.03
fs

So, = 3%

4.4. Clapp oscillator

• This is the advanced version of Colpitts’s oscillator as shown in figure 13.17.
• The circuit additionally contain the capacitor C3 to improve the frequency stability
and eliminates the effect of stray capacitance.

Fig. 13.17: Clapp oscillator

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1
• Frequency of oscillation is given by f =
2 LCeq

1 1 1 1
Where, = + +
Ceq C1 C2 C3

In practical cases C3 is very small.

So, Ceq  C3
1
f=
2 LC3

• The value of C3 is to be chosen with utmost core. This is because, if it is chosen to

be very small then the oscillations will not be generated.

Summary
• An oscillator is a device that generates a periodic, ac output signal without any form of
input signal.
• Oscillator basically contains amplifier like BJT, FET etc. and passive components that
use in positive feedback circuit.
• The three elements that an oscillator must have: oscillatory circuit, amplifier, positive
feedback network.
• To sustain oscillation in an output the barkhausen criterion must be satisfied.
According to the barkhausen criterion, total phase shift of the circuit must be 0 and Aβ
= 1. For linear oscillation, the loop gain, Aβ, should be only slightly greater than unity.
• There are various types of oscillator:
o RC oscillator that contains phase shift oscillator and Wein bridge oscillator.
o LC oscillator that contains Colpitts’s oscillator, Hartley’s oscillator, Clapp
oscillator.
o Crystal oscillator: working depends on mechanical vibration of crystal.
• A phase shift oscillator relies upon RC phase shift network to provide the necessary
phase relationship between output and input to an amplifier. The feedback factor, β =
1
. So, the amplifier must have a voltage gain of 2q or more.
2q

• The frequency of oscillations for phase shift oscillator is given as

1
f=
2RC 6

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• Wein-bridge oscillator is a two-stage amplifier with an RC bridge circuit. It makes use
of frequency selective bridge circuit to provide low distortion sinusoidal oscillations at a
frequency is given as
1
f=
2RC
• Oscillators which use inductance capacitance circuits as their tank or oscillator circuits
are called LC oscillators. They are very popular for generating high frequency output.
• Colpitts’s oscillator is an example of a resonant circuit oscillator that contains two
capacitors and one inductor. The frequency of oscillation is given by

1 1 1 1 
f=  + .
2 L  C1 C2 

• Hartley oscillator has a tapped coil in the tank circuit that divides into two-parts. The
frequency of oscillation is given by
1
f=
2 C(L1 + L2 + 2M)

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