1.
Motion, Forces, and Energy
Physical Quantities
1. Scalar: Magnitude only (e.g., mass, speed). Vector: Magnitude and direction (e.g., force,
velocity).
2. Use a measuring cylinder with water. Submerge the object, and measure the displaced
water volume.
3. Resultant = 5 N (using Pythagoras: √(4² + 3²)).
4. Speed lacks direction; velocity includes direction (e.g., 30 m/s vs. 30 m/s north).
5. Time 10 oscillations and divide by 10 to find the period.
Motion
1. Average speed = 30 km / 1.5 h = 20 km/h.
2. Straight line with constant positive gradient.
3. Gradient = acceleration.
4. Air resistance balances weight, resulting in zero net force (no acceleration).
5. 72 km/h = (72 × 1000) / 3600 = 20 m/s.
Forces
1. An object remains at rest or moves at constant velocity unless acted on by a resultant
force.
2. k=F/x=10 N/0.05 m=200 N/mk=F/x=10N/0.05m=200N/m.
3. Normal reaction force from the table balances the weight.
4. Friction opposes motion, converts kinetic energy to heat.
5. Sum of clockwise moments = sum of anticlockwise moments (e.g., seesaw balancing).
Energy
1. Ek=12mv2=0.5×2×32=9 JEk=21mv2=0.5×2×32=9J.
2. Energy = 50 W × 4 h = 0.2 kWh.
3. Extremely high temperatures/pressure needed to sustain fusion.
4. Fossil fuels: high efficiency but polluting. Solar: renewable but intermittent.
5. Energy cannot be created/destroyed, only transferred (e.g., KE → thermal).
Pressure
1. P=F/A=100 N/5 m2=20 PaP=F/A=100N/5m2=20Pa.
2. Due to the weight of the liquid above increasing with depth.
3. Uses Pascal’s principle: small force on small area creates large force on large area.
4. Sharp knives have smaller surface area, increasing pressure for cutting.
5. ΔP=ρgh=1000×9.8×10=98,000 PaΔP=ρgh=1000×9.8×10=98,000Pa.
2. Thermal Physics
States of Matter
1. Solids: Fixed shape/volume. Liquids: Fixed volume, no fixed shape. Gases: Neither.
2. Pressure doubles (Boyle’s Law: P∝1/VP∝1/V).
3. High-energy particles escape, lowering average KE (temperature) of remaining liquid.
4. Random motion of particles in fluid due to collisions (evidence for kinetic theory).
5. 300 K − 273 = 27°C.
Thermal Expansion
1. To prevent buckling when tracks expand in heat.
2. Gas particles gain KE, collide more frequently with walls.
3. Gases (particles are far apart, less constrained).
4. Bimetallic strips bend when heated, breaking circuits.
5. Density decreases (volume increases, mass stays constant).
Heat Transfer
1. Delocalized electrons transfer energy rapidly.
2. Vacuum prevents conduction/convection; reflective surfaces reduce radiation.
3. Black surfaces emit/absorb infrared better (matte finish).
4. Hot air rises, cool air sinks, creating a cycle.
5. Metal conducts heat away from your hand faster.
Specific Heat Capacity
1. Energy needed to raise 1 kg of a substance by 1°C.
2. Water has higher cc (4200 J/kg°C) than sand (~800 J/kg°C).
3. E=mcΔθ=2×4200×10=84,000 JE=mcΔθ=2×4200×10=84,000J.
4. Heat block, measure temp rise, energy input, and use c=E/(mΔθ)c=E/(mΔθ).
5. Water absorbs/releases large amounts of heat slowly, moderating temperature.
Latent Heat
1. Energy is used to break intermolecular bonds, not raise temperature.
2. Boiling: rapid, throughout liquid. Evaporation: slow, at surface.
3. Sweat absorbs body heat to evaporate, cooling skin.
4. Ice absorbs latent heat to melt, cooling surroundings.
5. Overcomes intermolecular forces (no temp change).
3. Waves
Wave Properties
1. Wavelength (λ): Distance between wave crests. Frequency (f): Waves per second.
2. v=fλ=5×2=10 m/sv=fλ=5×2=10m/s.
3. Longitudinal: Vibrations parallel to direction (e.g., sound). Transverse: Perpendicular
(e.g., light).
4. Sound needs a medium (particles to vibrate).
5. Diffraction increases if gap size ≈ wavelength.
Light
1. Angle of incidence = angle of reflection.
2. Light bends toward normal when entering glass, away when exiting.
3. Critical angle = sin−1(1/n)sin−1(1/n). For n=1.5n=1.5, c≈42°c≈42°.
4. Light slows in water, bending at the water-air boundary.
5. Converging lens bends light to focus on retina.
Sound
1. ~330–350 m/s in air.
2. Higher frequency = higher pitch.
3. Sound reflects off a hard surface (e.g., cliff).
4. Ultrasound (f > 20 kHz) used in prenatal scans.
5. Particles in solids are closer, transferring vibrations faster.
EM Spectrum
1. Radio → Microwaves → IR → Visible → UV → X-rays → Gamma.
2. Ionizes cells, damaging DNA (cancer risk).
3. Light reflects off inner glass walls via TIR.
4. Microwaves (penetrate atmosphere).
5. Emitted by warm objects (detected by thermal cameras).
Applications
1. AC in coil interacts with magnet, vibrating a cone.
2. Diaphragm vibrates, inducing current in a coil.
3. X-rays penetrate soft tissue but are absorbed by bones.
4. Radio waves reflect off objects, measuring distance/time.
5. Digital: Discrete values (0s/1s). Analog: Continuous signal.
4. Electricity and Magnetism
Circuits
1. Series: 6 + 6 = 12 Ω. Parallel: 1/R=1/6+1/61/R=1/6+1/6 → 3 Ω.
2. To avoid altering the current it measures.
3. All lamps go out (series circuit broken).
4. Resistance decreases with light intensity (used in streetlights).
5. Independent operation (one device failing doesn’t affect others).
Magnetism
1. Field lines from N to S pole.
2. Stroke with a magnet or place in a solenoid with DC current.
3. Reverses current direction to maintain motor rotation.
4. Electromagnet switches high-current circuits safely.
5. Strong magnetic force lifts metal scraps.
Electromagnetism
1. Induced EMF is proportional to rate of change of flux linkage.
2. More turns in secondary coil than primary (Vs/Vp=Ns/NpVs/Vp=Ns/Np).
3. Higher voltage = lower current (P=IVP=IV), reducing I2RI2R power loss.
4. Coil rotates in magnetic field, inducing AC via slip rings.
5. Maintains electrical contact while coil rotates.
Safety
1. Provides a low-resistance path to ground if live wire faults.
2. Melts if current exceeds rating, breaking the circuit.
3. Ensures no voltage remains in the appliance when off.
4. Overheating can cause fires (exceeds cable current rating).
5. Electromagnet trips a switch if current surges.
Power
1. E=Pt=2 kW×3 h=6 kWhE=Pt=2kW×3h=6kWh.
2. Safety (low voltage reduces shock risk) and battery compatibility.
3. P=IVP=IV (power = current × voltage).
4. Increases resistance to reduce current (Ohm’s Law: V=IRV=IR).
5. P=IVP=IV. High voltage allows lower current for same power, reducing energy loss.
5. Nuclear Physics
Atomic Structure
1. Most alpha particles passed through, but some deflected, indicating a tiny, dense
nucleus.
2. Atomic number (Z): Protons. Mass number (A): Protons + neutrons.
3. Same number of protons (determines chemistry).
4. 614C614C.
5. Radiation ionizes gas in tube, creating a measurable pulse.
Radioactivity
1. Alpha: High ionizing, low penetration. Beta: Moderate. Gamma: Low ionizing, high
penetration.
2. Dense material absorbs gamma photons effectively.
3. Natural sources: radon gas, rocks, cosmic rays.
4. 24 days = 3 half-lives → 40 g×(1/2)3=5 g40g×(1/2)3=5g.
5. Alpha ionizes air; smoke absorbs alpha, reducing current and triggering alarm.
Nuclear Reactions
1. 92238U→90234Th+24He92238U→90234Th+24He.
2. Neutron → proton + electron (n→p+e−n→p+e−).
3. Requires 100 million °C to overcome proton repulsion.
4. Uranium-235 splits, releasing energy/neutrons (chain reaction).
5. No CO₂ emissions, high energy density, but radioactive waste.
6. Space Physics
Solar System
1. Sun’s gravity provides centripetal force.
2. Planet: Cleared orbit. Dwarf planet: Has not (e.g., Pluto).
3. Distance=1.5×1011 m/3×108 m/s≈500 sDistance=1.5×1011m/3×108m/s≈500s (8.3
mins).
4. Outer regions colder; light gases (H/He) condense less.
5. Nebula collapsed under gravity, forming a protostar/Sun; leftover material formed
planets.
Stars
1. Distance light travels in 1 year (9.5×1015 m9.5×1015m).
2. Nebula → protostar → main sequence → red giant → white dwarf.
3. Massive star collapses, then explodes, scattering heavy elements.
4. Atmospheric refraction bends starlight randomly.
5. Neutron star or black hole.
Universe
1. Redshift, CMBR, Hubble’s Law.
2. Galaxies moving away stretch light wavelengths (Doppler effect).
3. Remnant radiation from Big Bang, now redshifted to microwave.
4. Age ≈1/H0≈14 billion years≈1/H0≈14billion years.
5. Contains billions of stars (e.g., Sun is one of ~100 billion in Milky Way).
Key Equations Recap:
v=fλv=fλ (wave speed)
F=maF=ma (Newton’s Second Law)
E=mcΔθE=mcΔθ (specific heat capacity)
V=IRV=IR (Ohm’s Law)
VpVs=NpNsVsVp=NsNp (transformer equation)