Stages of Measurement system Stages of Measurement system

STAGE-1 A Detector Transducing or Sensor stage :Its function is to detect or sense the
STAGE-1 A Detector Transducing or Sensor stage :Its measurand ideally, it should be insensitive to every other possible [Link] if it is a
pressure pickup, it should insensitive to acceleration.
function is to detect or sense the measurand ideally, it ResistivePotentiometer: A potentiometer is a 3- STAGE-2 Signal Conditioning Stage
should be insensitive to every other possible UNPLANED CALLIBRATION:When the instrument is terminal resistor in which the resistance is manually Its purpose is to modify the transduced information, so that it is acceptable to the
terminating [Link] may be performing the basic operations such as filtering,
[Link] if it is a pressure pickup, it should physically moved to a different location within a lab. varied to control the flow of electric integration, differentiating or telemetering as required. Increase in either amplitude or
power of the signal or both.
insensitive to acceleration. Questionable or ambiguous results are [Link]: The potentiometer consists of INTERMEDIATE MODIFYING STAGE
STAGE-2 Signal Conditioning Stage obtainedperhaps as a part of investigation three terminals among which two are fixed and one is The input signal is modified and amplified by signal conditioning and processing devices
before passing it to the output [Link] signal is processed by means of integration,
Its purpose is to modify the transduced information, so SUCCESS OF CALIBRATION:depends on the following : variable. The two fixed terminals of the potentiometer differentiation, addition,Subtraction, modulation. [Link] should be analogous to

that it is acceptable to the terminating [Link] may be • Consistency of results [Link] and are connected to both ends of the resistive element the input.
Terminating or Readout stage
performing the basic operations such as filtering, mitigation of outlier/potential outliers•Scientifically called track and third terminal is connected to the It provides the information sought in the form, comprehensible to one of the human

integration, differentiating or telemetering as required. designed calibration frequency. sliding wiper. The wiper that moves along the resistive
sense or to a [Link] can be presented as :a relative displacement such as
movement of indicating hand,[Link] digital form e.g. automobile odometer,etc.
Increase in either amplitude or power of the signal or BENEFITS:It fulfils the requirements of traceability to element varies the resistance of the potentiometer. OUTPUT OR TERMINATING STAGE
The output stage provides a value of the i/p measured being analogous to o/[Link]
both. national / international standards like ISO 9000, ISO The resistance of the potentiometer is changed when output is either indicated or recorded by a scale and pointer, digital display,CRO.

INTERMEDIATE MODIFYING STAGE 14000 etc. the wiper is moved over the resistive path. The GENERALIZE MS
Primary Sensing element:Retrieves energy from the measured system2,Produces some
The input signal is modified and amplified by signal As a proof that the instrument is working• Confidence resistive element of the potentiometer is either flat or form of output:Strain gage, thermometer [Link] conversion element:Changes

conditioning and processing devices before passing it in using the instruments. Traceability to national angled. If the resistive element is flat, the wiper moves
data from one physical form to [Link] to resistance, temperature to
volume change

to the output [Link] signal is processed by means measurement [Link]. linearly (Translatory Potentiometers). On the other Variable manipulation element:Performs mathematical operation on data as Amplifier,
filter
of integration, differentiation, addition,Subtraction, Reduced rejection, failure rate thus higher return. hand, if the resistive element is angled, the wiper Data transmission element:Gets data between measurement elements Wire, satellite

modulation. [Link] should be analogous to the NO CALLIBRATION:Unscheduled [Link] moves in a rotary manner (Rotary Potentiometers). downlink system.
Data storage/playback element:Stores data for later retrieval Hard drive. RAM.
input. product [Link] and audit [Link] Material: The materials used to construct the resistive Data presentation element:Gets data to form detectable by human as Indicators,
rework and recalls element of the potentiometer include carbon particles alarms.
Terminating or Readout stage Bourdon Tube Presure Guage:
OUT OF CALLIB:If calibration is not complete within in plastic, graphite, resistive wires, and cermets.. • Generalized measurement system applied to bourdon tube pressure [Link]
It provides the information sought in the form, tube: serves as primary detector-transducer, it is changing pressure into near linear
time, results from the calibration do no meet set Potentiometers are used in televisions and computers [Link]- gear arrangement: serves as secondary transducer linear to
comprehensible to one of the human sense or to a
criteria. If the results are different, then appropriate to control the picture contrast and brightness. rotary motion and as an amplifier, yielding magnified output
[Link] can be presented as :a relative ANALYTICAL DEVICE
evaluation and justification need to be [Link] Strain Gauge:is a device used to measure the [Link]:a device use collect scientific
displacement such as movement of indicating [Link]:Refers to specific tool for performung analysis in laboratory.
on the outcome of the investigation, CAPA is strain of an object The gauge is attached to the object
hand,[Link] digital form e.g. automobile odometer,etc. Calibration: is the comparison of measurement values delivered by a device under test
implemented and the re-calibration is performed. by a suitable [Link] resistance change is with those of a calibration standard of known accuracy.
OUTPUT OR TERMINATING STAGE Identification of Causes:Training of analyst for
CONTROL ON ENVORNMENT:
commonly measured using a Wheatstone bridge. REQUIREMENT:Reference Standards & [Link] Environment
The output stage provides a value of the i/p measured [Link]/StandardsCleanliness
being analogous to o/[Link] output is either indicated TYPES:STRAIN GUAGE : [Link] of Calibration Lab personnel.
CONTROL ON ENVORNMENT:In order to derive best accuracy conditions are:
.History of malfunction/breakdown and Resistive Strain Gauge: a device that converts a Temperature ( e.g. 25 +/-4.0 deg.C).Relative Humidity (e.g. </=70% RH).Illumination
or recorded by a scale and pointer, digital display,CRO. [Link] of previous calibration report. level ( e.g. minimum 450 Lx.).Acoustic Level (e.g. max. 60 dB).Shock and Vibration
change in applied force into a change in produced
GENERALIZE MS should be [Link] supply Regulation (e.g. +/- 1%).Temperature gradient (e.g.
1.5 deg.C / hour)
[Link] strain gages: The unbonded wire
Primary Sensing element:Retrieves energy from the STATIC AND DYNAMIC
Calibration Documentation: [Link] Procedure / [Link] Results(
strain [Link] bonded wire strain gage Recording of data).Calibration Report .Calibration Certificate.
measured system2,Produces some form of Static Characteristics:Measurement of those INTERVAL/FREQURNCY OF COLLAB:Type of [Link] of use
Weldable wire gages:Foil strain gages .Manufacturer’s recommendations Accuracy of measurement sought.
output:Strain gage, thermometer [Link] quantities that are constant or vary quite [Link] • Weldable foil strain gages Qualification:It basically proves that the equipment works correctly and actually leads
conversion element:Changes data from one physical involvement of equations(like differential
to accurate and reliable results Calibration:Ensures that on an on-going basis that the
UnBonded type WIRE: the strain-sensitive wire is equipment is performing properly.
form to [Link] to resistance, Equations).E.g Dry friction, backlash. REASON OF CALLIBRATION:In general use, calibration is often regarded as including the
mounted under tension on mechanical supports (pins)
temperature to volume change Dynamic Characteristics:Measurement problem
process of adjusting the output or indication on a measurement instrument to agree
in such a manner that a slight relative motion of the with value of the applied standard, within a specified [Link] observations
Variable manipulation element:Performs involving rapidly changing quantities•Dynamic relation appear questionable or instrument indications do not match the output of surrogate
supports will cause a change in strain. This in turn
mathematical operation on data as Amplifier, filter between input and output•By the use of differential
instruments.
produces a change in electrical resistance NEED OF CALIBORATION:To maintain quality control and quality assurance in
Data transmission element:Gets data between equations.E.g Non linear, complex Differential [Link] comply with requirements of global [Link] meet the requirement of
BOUNDED WIRE:a very fine strain-sensitive wire ISO guides.
measurement elements Wire, satellite downlink equations. directly to the surface on which strain is to be Manual Calibration: a manual process may be used for calibration of a pressure gauge.
system. The procedure requires multiple steps, to connect the gauge under test to a reference
STATIC CHARACTER [Link] filament has to be electrically master gauge and an adjustable pressure source, to apply fluid pressure to both
Data storage/playback element:Stores data for later reference and test gauges at definite points over the span of the gauge, and to compare
• 1Accuracy: It is the degree of closeness with which [Link] bonding perfect for the strain-sensitive
retrieval Hard drive. RAM. the readings of the two. The gauge under test may be adjusted to ensure its zero point
the reading approaches the true value of the quantity element to follow the strain on the surface and response to pressure comply as closely as possible to the intended accuracy. Each
Data presentation element:Gets data to form step of the process requires manual record keeping. Automatic Calibration: An
to be measured. The accuracy can be expressed in APPLICATION OF STRAIN GAUGES:Strain gauges are automatic pressure calibrator is a device that combines an electronic control unit.A
detectable by human as Indicators, alarms.
following ways:Point accuracy: Such accuracy is basically strain transducers which converts the pressure intensifier used to compress a gas such as Nitrogen, a pressure transducer
Bourdon Tube Presure Guage: used to detect desired levels in a hydraulic accumulator, and accessories such as liquid
specified at only one particular point of scale. It does mechanical signals into electrical signals and hence traps and gauge fittings. An automatic system may also include data collection facilities
Generalized measurement system applied to bourdon to automate the gathering of data for record keeping.
not give any information about the accuracy at any measure the strain produced. This strain can be
tube pressure [Link] tube: serves as primary CALLIBRATION SPECIFICATION:Instrument calibration tolerance limits should be
other Point on the scale. Accuracy as percentage of utilized further to measure the following established so problems are identified and corrected in a timely [Link] assigning
detector-transducer, it is changing pressure into near tolerances, considerations given to:
scale span: When an instrument having a uniform Quantities:Torque Pressure,Flow Rate,Residual • Capability of the instrument being calibrated
linear [Link]- gear arrangement: CALLIBRATION PROCESS: Written calibration procedures that use traceable calibration
scale, its accuracy may be expressed in terms of scale Stresses
serves as secondary transducer linear to rotary motion standards or calibration equipment. Qualified individuals responsible for calibrating &
range. Accuracy as percentage of true value: The best MEASUREMENT OF FORCE: Force can be measured maintaining instrumentation. Second person check of all calibration [Link]
and as an amplifier, yielding magnified output. individuals responsible for monitoring the calibration
way to conceive the idea of accuracy is to specify it in using strain gauge load cells.A load cell is a transducer Ensure the calibration program and procedures are reviewed and approved by Quality
terms of the true value of the quantity being that is used to convert a force into electrical signal.A UNPLANED CALLIBRATION:When the instrument is physically moved to a different
location within a lab. Questionable or ambiguous results are obtainedperhaps as a part
measured. load cell is made by bonding strain gauges to a spring of investigation
2 Precision: It is the measure of reproducibility i.e., material. When there is no load, all gauges have same SUCCESS OF CALIBRATION:depends on the following : • Consistency of results
ANALYTICAL DEVICE given a fixed value of a quantity, precision is a measure resistance and bridge is [Link] load is applied,
[Link] and mitigation of outlier/potential outliers•Scientifically designed
calibration frequency.
[Link]:a device use collect scientific of the degree of agreement within a group of there is change in resistance and hence some output
BENEFITS:It fulfils the requirements of traceability to national / international standards
like ISO 9000, ISO 14000 etc.
[Link]:Refers to specific tool for performung measurements. The precision is composed of two voltage is there which is the measure of applied load. As a proof that the instrument is working• Confidence in using the instruments.
analysis in laboratory. characteristics:a) Conformity: Consider a resistor
Traceability to national measurement [Link].
TORQUE MEASUREMENT Reduced rejection, failure rate thus higher return.
Calibration: is the comparison of measurement values having true value as 2385692 , which is being NO CALLIBRATION:Unscheduled [Link] product [Link] and audit
Four bonded-wire strain gauges are mounted on a 450
delivered by a device under test with those of a measured by an ohmmeter. But the reader can read
[Link] rework and recalls
helix with axis of rotation and place in pairs OUT OF CALLIB:If calibration is not complete within time, results from the calibration do
calibration standard of known accuracy. consistently, a value as 2.4 M due to the non
no meet set criteria. If the results are different, then appropriate evaluation and
diametrically opposite as shown in figure • If gauges justification need to be [Link] on the outcome of the investigation, CAPA is
CONTROL ON ENVORNMENT: availability of proper scale. The error created due to implemented and the re-calibration is performed.
are accurately placed and have matched
REQUIREMENT:Reference Standards & the limitation of the scale reading is a precision error.
Identification of Causes:Training of analyst for
characteristics, the system is temperature [Link]/[Link] of
[Link] Environment b) Number of significant figures: The precision of the malfunction/breakdown and [Link] of previous calibration report.
compensated and insensitive to bending, thrust or STATIC AND DYNAMIC
[Link] of Calibration Lab personnel. measurement is obtained from the number of [Link] change in resistance is purely due to torsion of Static Characteristics:Measurement of those quantities that are constant or vary quite
CONTROL ON ENVORNMENT:In order to derive best significant figures, in which the reading is expressed.
[Link] involvement of equations(like differential Equations).E.g Dry friction,
shaft, hence the torque can be determined by backlash.
accuracy conditions are: Temperature ( e.g. 25 +/-4.0 The significant figures convey the actual information measuring change in voltage which can be written Dynamic Characteristics:Measurement problem involving rapidly changing
deg.C).Relative Humidity (e.g. </=70% RH).Illumination about the magnitude & the measurement precision of
quantities•Dynamic relation between input and output•By the use of differential
as:T=e/(V*K)[J*E/r(1-μ)] equations.E.g Non linear, complex Differential equations.
level ( e.g. minimum 450 Lx.).Acoustic Level (e.g. max. the quantity. 3 Sensitivity: The sensitivity denotes the STATIC CHARACTER
Where,e= Change in Voltage V=Applied Voltage
60 dB).Shock and Vibration should be smallest change in the measured variable to which the
• 1Accuracy: It is the degree of closeness with which the reading approaches the true
K=Gauge Factor J=Polar Moment of Inertia E=Young’s value of the quantity to be measured. The accuracy can be expressed in following
[Link] supply Regulation (e.g. +/- instrument responds. It is defined as the ratio of the
ways:Point accuracy: Such accuracy is specified at only one particular point of scale. It
Modulus r= Radius of Member does not give any information about the accuracy at any other Point on the scale.
1%).Temperature gradient (e.g. 1.5 deg.C / hour) changes in the output of an instrument to a change in Accelerometer: is an electromechanical device Accuracy as percentage of scale span: When an instrument having a uniform scale, its
Calibration Documentation: [Link] Procedure / the value of the quantity to be measured. Resolution:
accuracy may be expressed in terms of scale range. Accuracy as percentage of true
that measure acceleration [Link] forces may be: value: The best way to conceive the idea of accuracy is to specify it in terms of the true
[Link] Results( Recording of If the input is slowly increased from some arbitrary value of the quantity being measured.
• Static, like the constant force of gravity pulling at
data).Calibration Report .Calibration Certificate. input value, it will again be found that output does not
2 Precision: It is the measure of reproducibility i.e., given a fixed value of a quantity,
your feet.• Dynamic - caused by moving or vibrating precision is a measure of the degree of agreement within a group of measurements. The
INTERVAL/FREQURNCY OF COLLAB:Type of change at all until a certain increment is exceeded. This
precision is composed of two characteristics:a) Conformity: Consider a resistor having
the [Link] contains:Engineering true value as 2385692 , which is being measured by an ohmmeter. But the reader can
[Link] of use .Manufacturer’s increment is called resolution.4 Threshold: If the Building and Structural read consistently, a value as 2.4 M due to the non availability of proper scale. The error
recommendations Accuracy of measurement sought. instrument input is increased very gradually from zero
created due to the limitation of the scale reading is a precision error. b) Number of
Monitoring,MedicalApplications,Navigation significant figures: The precision of the measurement is obtained from the number of
Qualification:It basically proves that the equipment there will be some minimum value below which no significant figures, in which the reading is expressed. The significant figures convey the
WORKING PRICIPLE:•An accelerometer measures actual information about the magnitude & the measurement precision of the quantity. 3
works correctly and actually leads to accurate and output change can be detected. This minimum value proper acceleration, which is the acceleration it Sensitivity: The sensitivity denotes the smallest change in the measured variable to
reliable results Calibration:Ensures that on an on-going defines the threshold of the instrument.
which the instrument responds. It is defined as the ratio of the changes in the output of
experiences relative to freefall and is the acceleration an instrument to a change in the value of the quantity to be measured. Resolution: If
basis that the equipment is performing properly. 5 Stability: It is the ability of an instrument to retain its the input is slowly increased from some arbitrary input value, it will again be found that
felt by people and objects.
REASON OF CALLIBRATION:In general use, calibration performance throughout is specified operating life.6
output does not change at all until a certain increment is exceeded. This increment is

is often regarded as including the process of adjusting DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SYSTEMATIC AND called resolution.4 Threshold: If the instrument input is increased very gradually from
zero there will be some minimum value below which no output change can be detected.
Tolerance: The maximum allowable error in the RANDOM ERROR
the output or indication on a measurement instrument measurement is specified in terms of some value
This minimum value defines the threshold of the instrument.
5 Stability: It is the ability of an instrument to retain its performance throughout is
to agree with value of the applied standard, within a • Random errors are (like the name suggests) specified operating life.6 Tolerance: The maximum allowable error in the measurement
which is called tolerance.7 Range or span: The completely random. They are unpredictable and can’t is specified in terms of some value which is called tolerance.7 Range or span: The
specified [Link] observations appear minimum & maximum values of a quantity for which minimum & maximum values of a quantity for which an instrument is designed to
questionable or instrument indications do not match be replicated by repeating the experiment again. measure is called its range or span.8 Reproducibility: It is the degree of closeness with
an instrument is designed to measure is called its • Systematic Errors produce consistent errors, either a which a given value may be repeatedly measured. It is specified in terms of scale
the output of surrogate instruments. range or span.8 Reproducibility: It is the degree of readings over a given period of time.9 Repeatability: It is defined as the variation of
NEED OF CALIBORATION:To maintain quality control fixed amount (like 1 lb) or a proportion (like 105% of scale reading & random in nature.10Drift: Drift may be classified into three categories:a)
closeness with which a given value may be repeatedly the true value). If you repeat the experiment, you’ll get zero drift: If the whole calibration gradually shifts due to slippage, permanent set, or
and quality assurance in [Link] comply with measured. It is specified in terms of scale readings over
due to undue warming up of electronic tube circuits, zero drift sets in.b) span drift or

requirements of global [Link] meet the requirement the same error. sensitivity drift: If there is proportional change in the indication all along the upward
a given period of time.9 Repeatability: It is defined as • Systematic errors are consistently in the same
scale, the drifts is called span drift or sensitivity drift.c) Zonal drift: In case the drift
of ISO guides. the variation of scale reading & random in
occurs only a portion of span of an instrument, it is called zonal drift.

Manual Calibration: a manual process may be used for direction (e.g. they are always 50 g, 1% or 99 mm too 11Loading effect:The incapability of a measuring system to measure, record, or control
nature.10Drift: Drift may be classified into three large or too small). In contrast, random errors produce
the input in an undistorted [Link] mav occur in an of the three stages of measurement.
calibration of a pressure gauge. The procedure categories:a) zero drift: If the whole calibration
12System Response:The characteristics of a measuring instrument is to transmit the
input signal with all the relevant [Link] behaviour of the measuring system
requires multiple steps, to connect the gauge under different values in random directions. For example, under the varying conditions of inputwith respect to time is known as the dynamic
gradually shifts due to slippage, permanent set, or due you use a scale to weigh yourself and get 148 lbs, 153 response. System [Link] types of dynamic inputs:1. Steady-state periodic
test to a reference master gauge and an adjustable to undue warming up of electronic tube circuits, zero quantity: Magnitude has a definite repeating time cycle.2. Transient magnitude: The
pressure source, to apply fluid pressure to both lbs, and 132 lbs. time variation of the transient magnitude does not repeat.
drift sets in.b) span drift or sensitivity drift: If there is Random Errors Cause and ExamplesThe main reasons Dynamic characteristics: The set of criteria defined for the instruments, which
reference and test gauges at definite points over the proportional change in the indication all along the are changes rapidly with time, is called ‘dynamic characteristics’. The various static
span of the gauge, and to compare the readings of the for random error are limitations of instruments, characteristics:
upward scale, the drifts is called span drift or environmental factors, and slight variations in
1. Speed of response:The speed with which the measuring instrument responds to the
two. The gauge under test may be adjusted to ensure sensitivity drift.c) Zonal drift: In case the drift occurs
changes in the measured quantity.2. Measurina lag:The time when an instrument

its zero point and response to pressure comply as procedure. For example:When weighing yourself on a begins to respond to a change in the measured [Link] is normally due to the
only a portion of span of an instrument, it is called scale, you position yourself slightly differently each
natural inertia of the measuring [Link]: It is defined as the degree to which a
closely as possible to the intended accuracy. Each step zonal drift.
measurement system indicates changes in the measurand quantity without dynamic

of the process requires manual record keeping. time.• When taking a volume reading in a flask, you [Link] error: It is the difference between the true value of the quantity
changing with time & the value indicated by the measurement system if no static error
11Loading effect:The incapability of a measuring may read the value from a different angle each time.
Automatic Calibration: An automatic pressure system to measure, record, or control the input in an
is assumed.
ResistivePotentiometer: A potentiometer is a 3-terminal resistor in which the
calibrator is a device that combines an electronic Systematic Errors Cause and Examples resistance is manually varied to control the flow of electric [Link]: The
undistorted [Link] mav occur in an of the three stages Typical causes of systematic error include potentiometer consists of three terminals among which two are fixed and one is
control unit.A pressure intensifier used to compress a of measurement. variable. The two fixed terminals of the potentiometer are connected to both ends of
gas such as Nitrogen, a pressure transducer used to observational error, imperfect instrumentcalibration the resistive element called track and third terminal is connected to the sliding wiper.
12System Response:The characteristics of a measuring and environmental interference. For The wiper that moves along the resistive element varies the resistance of the
detect desired levels in a hydraulic accumulator, and instrument is to transmit the input signal with all the potentiometer. The resistance of the potentiometer is changed when the wiper is
accessories such as liquid traps and gauge fittings. An example:Forgetting to tare or zero a balance produces moved over the resistive path. The resistive element of the potentiometer is either flat
relevant [Link] behaviour of the measuring mass measurements that arealwavs "off" bu the same or angled. If the resistive element is flat, the wiper moves linearly (Translatory
automatic system may also include data collection system under the varying conditions of inputwith
Potentiometers). On the other hand, if the resistive element is angled, the wiper moves

facilities to automate the gathering of data for record amount. An error caused by not setting an in a rotary manner (Rotary Potentiometers). Material: The materials used to construct
respect to time is known as the dynamic response. instrumentto zero prior to its use is called an offset
the resistive element of the potentiometer include carbon particles in plastic, graphite,
keeping. System [Link] types of dynamic inputs:1.
resistive wires, and cermets.. • Potentiometers are used in televisions and computers to

CALLIBRATION SPECIFICATION:Instrument calibration error. control the picture contrast and brightness.
Steady-state periodic quantity: Magnitude has a Random error can be reduced by:
Strain Gauge:is a device used to measure the strain of an object The gauge is
tolerance limits should be established so problems are definite repeating time cycle.2. Transient magnitude:
attached to the object by a suitable [Link] resistance change is commonly
measured using a Wheatstone bridge.
identified and corrected in a timely [Link] • Using an average measurement from a set of TYPES:STRAIN GUAGE :
The time variation of the transient magnitude does not measurements or increasing sample size. Resistive Strain Gauge: a device that converts a change in applied force into a change in
assigning tolerances, considerations given to: repeat. produced [Link] strain gages: The unbonded wire strain [Link] bonded wire
• Capability of the instrument being calibrated • It’s difficult to detect — and therefore prevent — strain gage
Dynamic characteristics: The set of criteria systematic error. In order to avoid these types of Weldable wire gages:Foil strain gages
CALLIBRATION PROCESS: Written calibration defined for the instruments, which are changes rapidly • Weldable foil strain gages
procedures that use traceable calibration standards or error, know the limitations of your equipment and UnBonded type WIRE: the strain-sensitive wire is mounted under tension on
with time, is called ‘dynamic characteristics’. The understand how the experiment works. This can help
mechanical supports (pins) in such a manner that a slight relative motion of the
calibration equipment. Qualified individuals various static characteristics:
supports will cause a change in strain. This in turn produces a change in electrical

responsible for calibrating & maintaining you identify areas that may be prone to systematic resistance
1. Speed of response:The speed with which the errors.
BOUNDED WIRE:a very fine strain-sensitive wire directly to the surface on which
instrumentation. Second person check of all calibration measuring instrument responds to the changes in the
strain is to be [Link] filament has to be electrically [Link] bonding

[Link] individuals responsible for monitoring WAYS TO IMPROVE ACCURACY IN MEASURMENTS perfect for the strain-sensitive element to follow the strain on the surface
APPLICATION OF STRAIN GAUGES:Strain gauges are basically strain transducers which
measured quantity.2. Measurina lag:The time when an 1. Make the measurement with an instrument that has the
the calibration instrument begins to respond to a change in the
converts the mechanical signals into electrical signals and hence measure the strain
highest level of precision. The smaller the unit, or fraction of a produced. This strain can be utilized further to measure the following Quantities:Torque
Ensure the calibration program and procedures are measured [Link] is normally due to the natural unit, on the measuring device, the more precisely the device
Pressure,Flow Rate,Residual Stresses
MEASUREMENT OF FORCE: Force can be measured using strain gauge load cells.A load
reviewed and approved by Quality inertia of the measuring [Link]: It is defined can [Link] your tools! Apply correct techniques cell is a transducer that is used to convert a force into electrical signal.A load cell is
made by bonding strain gauges to a spring material. When there is no load, all gauges
as the degree to which a measurement system when using the measuring instrument and reading the value have same resistance and bridge is [Link] load is applied, there is change in
indicates changes in the measurand quantity without measured. Avoid the error called "parallax" -- always take resistance and hence some output voltage is there which is the measure of applied load.
readings by looking straight down (or ahead) at the measuring TORQUE MEASUREMENT
dynamic [Link] error: It is the difference device. Looking at the measuring device from a left or right
Four bonded-wire strain gauges are mounted on a 450 helix with axis of rotation and
place in pairs diametrically opposite as shown in figure • If gauges are accurately placed
between the true value of the quantity changing with angle will give an incorrect [Link] the same measure and have matched characteristics, the system is temperature compensated and
time & the value indicated by the measurement several times to get a good average value,Measure under insensitive to bending, thrust or [Link] change in resistance is purely due to torsion of
shaft, hence the torque can be determined by measuring change in voltage which can
system if no static error is assumed. controlled conditions.
 instrument, it is called zonal drift. calibration gradually shifts due to slippage, permanent set, or due to
Stages of Measurement system 11Loading effect:The incapability of a measuring system to measure, undue warming up of electronic tube circuits, zero drift sets in.b) span
STAGE-1 A Detector Transducing or Sensor stage :Its function is to detect record, or control the input in an undistorted [Link] mav occur in an of drift or sensitivity drift: If there is proportional change in the indication
or sense the measurand ideally, it should be insensitive to every other the three stages of measurement. all along the upward scale, the drifts is called span drift or sensitivity
possible [Link] if it is a pressure pickup, it should insensitive to 12System Response:The characteristics of a measuring instrument is to drift.c) Zonal drift: In case the drift occurs only a portion of span of an
acceleration. transmit the input signal with all the relevant [Link] behaviour instrument, it is called zonal drift.
STAGE-2 Signal Conditioning Stage of the measuring system under the varying conditions of inputwith Stages of Measurement system 11Loading effect:The incapability of a measuring system to measure,
Its purpose is to modify the transduced information, so that it is respect to time is known as the dynamic response. System [Link] STAGE-1 A Detector Transducing or Sensor stage :Its function is to detect record, or control the input in an undistorted [Link] mav occur in an of
acceptable to the terminating [Link] may be performing the basic types of dynamic inputs:1. Steady-state periodic quantity: Magnitude or sense the measurand ideally, it should be insensitive to every other the three stages of measurement.
operations such as filtering, integration, differentiating or telemetering as has a definite repeating time cycle.2. Transient magnitude: The time possible [Link] if it is a pressure pickup, it should insensitive to 12System Response:The characteristics of a measuring instrument is to
required. Increase in either amplitude or power of the signal or both. variation of the transient magnitude does not repeat. acceleration. transmit the input signal with all the relevant [Link] behaviour
INTERMEDIATE MODIFYING STAGE Dynamic characteristics: The set of criteria defined for the STAGE-2 Signal Conditioning Stage of the measuring system under the varying conditions of inputwith
The input signal is modified and amplified by signal conditioning and instruments, which are changes rapidly with time, is called ‘dynamic Its purpose is to modify the transduced information, so that it is respect to time is known as the dynamic response. System [Link]
processing devices before passing it to the output [Link] signal is characteristics’. The various static characteristics: acceptable to the terminating [Link] may be performing the basic types of dynamic inputs:1. Steady-state periodic quantity: Magnitude
processed by means of integration, differentiation, addition,Subtraction, 1. Speed of response:The speed with which the measuring instrument operations such as filtering, integration, differentiating or telemetering as has a definite repeating time cycle.2. Transient magnitude: The time
modulation. [Link] should be analogous to the input. responds to the changes in the measured quantity.2. Measurina lag:The required. Increase in either amplitude or power of the signal or both. variation of the transient magnitude does not repeat.
Terminating or Readout stage time when an instrument begins to respond to a change in the measured INTERMEDIATE MODIFYING STAGE Dynamic characteristics: The set of criteria defined for the
It provides the information sought in the form, comprehensible to one of [Link] is normally due to the natural inertia of the measuring The input signal is modified and amplified by signal conditioning and instruments, which are changes rapidly with time, is called ‘dynamic
the human sense or to a [Link] can be presented as :a relative [Link]: It is defined as the degree to which a measurement processing devices before passing it to the output [Link] signal is characteristics’. The various static characteristics:
displacement such as movement of indicating hand,[Link] digital form e.g. system indicates changes in the measurand quantity without dynamic processed by means of integration, differentiation, addition,Subtraction, 1. Speed of response:The speed with which the measuring instrument
automobile odometer,etc. [Link] error: It is the difference between the true value of the modulation. [Link] should be analogous to the input. responds to the changes in the measured quantity.2. Measurina lag:The
OUTPUT OR TERMINATING STAGE quantity changing with time & the value indicated by the measurement Terminating or Readout stage time when an instrument begins to respond to a change in the measured
The output stage provides a value of the i/p measured being analogous to system if no static error is assumed. It provides the information sought in the form, comprehensible to one of [Link] is normally due to the natural inertia of the measuring
o/[Link] output is either indicated or recorded by a scale and pointer, the human sense or to a [Link] can be presented as :a relative [Link]: It is defined as the degree to which a measurement
digital display,CRO. displacement such as movement of indicating hand,[Link] digital form e.g. system indicates changes in the measurand quantity without dynamic
GENERALIZE MS ResistivePotentiometer: A potentiometer is a 3-terminal resistor in automobile odometer,etc. [Link] error: It is the difference between the true value of the
Primary Sensing element:Retrieves energy from the measured which the resistance is manually varied to control the flow of electric OUTPUT OR TERMINATING STAGE quantity changing with time & the value indicated by the measurement
system2,Produces some form of output:Strain gage, thermometer [Link]: The potentiometer consists of three terminals The output stage provides a value of the i/p measured being analogous to system if no static error is assumed.
[Link] conversion element:Changes data from one physical form to among which two are fixed and one is variable. The two fixed terminals of o/[Link] output is either indicated or recorded by a scale and pointer,
[Link] to resistance, temperature to volume change the potentiometer are connected to both ends of the resistive element digital display,CRO.
Variable manipulation element:Performs mathematical operation on called track and third terminal is connected to the sliding wiper. The GENERALIZE MS ResistivePotentiometer: A potentiometer is a 3-terminal resistor in
data as Amplifier, filter wiper that moves along the resistive element varies the resistance of the Primary Sensing element:Retrieves energy from the measured which the resistance is manually varied to control the flow of electric
Data transmission element:Gets data between measurement elements potentiometer. The resistance of the potentiometer is changed when the system2,Produces some form of output:Strain gage, thermometer [Link]: The potentiometer consists of three terminals
Wire, satellite downlink system. wiper is moved over the resistive path. The resistive element of the [Link] conversion element:Changes data from one physical form to among which two are fixed and one is variable. The two fixed terminals of
Data storage/playback element:Stores data for later retrieval Hard drive. potentiometer is either flat or angled. If the resistive element is flat, the [Link] to resistance, temperature to volume change the potentiometer are connected to both ends of the resistive element
RAM. wiper moves linearly (Translatory Potentiometers). On the other hand, if Variable manipulation element:Performs mathematical operation on called track and third terminal is connected to the sliding wiper. The
Data presentation element:Gets data to form detectable by human as the resistive element is angled, the wiper moves in a rotary manner data as Amplifier, filter wiper that moves along the resistive element varies the resistance of the
Indicators, alarms. (Rotary Potentiometers). Material: The materials used to construct the Data transmission element:Gets data between measurement elements potentiometer. The resistance of the potentiometer is changed when the
Bourdon Tube Presure Guage: resistive element of the potentiometer include carbon particles in plastic, Wire, satellite downlink system. wiper is moved over the resistive path. The resistive element of the
Generalized measurement system applied to bourdon tube pressure graphite, resistive wires, and cermets.. • Potentiometers are used in Data storage/playback element:Stores data for later retrieval Hard drive. potentiometer is either flat or angled. If the resistive element is flat, the
[Link] tube: serves as primary detector-transducer, it is televisions and computers to control the picture contrast and brightness. RAM. wiper moves linearly (Translatory Potentiometers). On the other hand, if
changing pressure into near linear [Link]- gear Strain Gauge:is a device used to measure the strain of an Data presentation element:Gets data to form detectable by human as the resistive element is angled, the wiper moves in a rotary manner
arrangement: serves as secondary transducer linear to rotary motion and object The gauge is attached to the object by a suitable [Link] Indicators, alarms. (Rotary Potentiometers). Material: The materials used to construct the
as an amplifier, yielding magnified output. resistance change is commonly measured using a Wheatstone bridge. Bourdon Tube Presure Guage: resistive element of the potentiometer include carbon particles in plastic,
TYPES:STRAIN GUAGE : Generalized measurement system applied to bourdon tube pressure graphite, resistive wires, and cermets.. • Potentiometers are used in
Resistive Strain Gauge: a device that converts a change in applied force [Link] tube: serves as primary detector-transducer, it is televisions and computers to control the picture contrast and brightness.
ANALYTICAL DEVICE into a change in produced [Link] strain gages: The unbonded changing pressure into near linear [Link]- gear Strain Gauge:is a device used to measure the strain of an
[Link]:a device use collect scientific wire strain [Link] bonded wire strain gage arrangement: serves as secondary transducer linear to rotary motion and object The gauge is attached to the object by a suitable [Link]
[Link]:Refers to specific tool for performung analysis in Weldable wire gages:Foil strain gages as an amplifier, yielding magnified output. resistance change is commonly measured using a Wheatstone bridge.
laboratory. • Weldable foil strain gages TYPES:STRAIN GUAGE :
Calibration: is the comparison of measurement values delivered by a UnBonded type WIRE: the strain-sensitive wire is mounted under Resistive Strain Gauge: a device that converts a change in applied force
device under test with those of a calibration standard of known accuracy. tension on mechanical supports (pins) in such a manner that a slight ANALYTICAL DEVICE into a change in produced [Link] strain gages: The unbonded
CONTROL ON ENVORNMENT: relative motion of the supports will cause a change in strain. This in turn [Link]:a device use collect scientific wire strain [Link] bonded wire strain gage
REQUIREMENT:Reference Standards & [Link] produces a change in electrical resistance [Link]:Refers to specific tool for performung analysis in Weldable wire gages:Foil strain gages
Environment [Link] of Calibration Lab personnel. BOUNDED WIRE:a very fine strain-sensitive wire directly to the surface laboratory. • Weldable foil strain gages
CONTROL ON ENVORNMENT:In order to derive best accuracy conditions on which strain is to be [Link] filament has to be electrically Calibration: is the comparison of measurement values delivered by a UnBonded type WIRE: the strain-sensitive wire is mounted under
are: Temperature ( e.g. 25 +/-4.0 deg.C).Relative Humidity (e.g. </=70% [Link] bonding perfect for the strain-sensitive element to follow device under test with those of a calibration standard of known accuracy. tension on mechanical supports (pins) in such a manner that a slight
RH).Illumination level ( e.g. minimum 450 Lx.).Acoustic Level (e.g. max. 60 the strain on the surface CONTROL ON ENVORNMENT: relative motion of the supports will cause a change in strain. This in turn
dB).Shock and Vibration should be [Link] supply Regulation APPLICATION OF STRAIN GAUGES:Strain gauges are basically strain REQUIREMENT:Reference Standards & [Link] produces a change in electrical resistance
(e.g. +/- 1%).Temperature gradient (e.g. 1.5 deg.C / hour) transducers which converts the mechanical signals into electrical signals Environment [Link] of Calibration Lab personnel. BOUNDED WIRE:a very fine strain-sensitive wire directly to the surface
Calibration Documentation: [Link] Procedure / and hence measure the strain produced. This strain can be utilized CONTROL ON ENVORNMENT:In order to derive best accuracy conditions on which strain is to be [Link] filament has to be electrically
[Link] Results( Recording of data).Calibration Report further to measure the following Quantities:Torque Pressure,Flow are: Temperature ( e.g. 25 +/-4.0 deg.C).Relative Humidity (e.g. </=70% [Link] bonding perfect for the strain-sensitive element to follow
.Calibration Certificate. Rate,Residual Stresses RH).Illumination level ( e.g. minimum 450 Lx.).Acoustic Level (e.g. max. 60 the strain on the surface
INTERVAL/FREQURNCY OF COLLAB:Type of [Link] of use MEASUREMENT OF FORCE: Force can be measured using strain dB).Shock and Vibration should be [Link] supply Regulation APPLICATION OF STRAIN GAUGES:Strain gauges are basically strain
.Manufacturer’s recommendations Accuracy of measurement sought. gauge load cells.A load cell is a transducer that is used to convert a force (e.g. +/- 1%).Temperature gradient (e.g. 1.5 deg.C / hour) transducers which converts the mechanical signals into electrical signals
Qualification:It basically proves that the equipment works correctly and into electrical signal.A load cell is made by bonding strain gauges to a Calibration Documentation: [Link] Procedure / and hence measure the strain produced. This strain can be utilized
actually leads to accurate and reliable results Calibration:Ensures that on spring material. When there is no load, all gauges have same resistance [Link] Results( Recording of data).Calibration Report further to measure the following Quantities:Torque Pressure,Flow
an on-going basis that the equipment is performing properly. and bridge is [Link] load is applied, there is change in resistance .Calibration Certificate. Rate,Residual Stresses
REASON OF CALLIBRATION:In general use, calibration is often regarded and hence some output voltage is there which is the measure of applied INTERVAL/FREQURNCY OF COLLAB:Type of [Link] of use MEASUREMENT OF FORCE: Force can be measured using strain
as including the process of adjusting the output or indication on a load. .Manufacturer’s recommendations Accuracy of measurement sought. gauge load cells.A load cell is a transducer that is used to convert a force
measurement instrument to agree with value of the applied standard, Qualification:It basically proves that the equipment works correctly and into electrical signal.A load cell is made by bonding strain gauges to a
TORQUE MEASUREMENT
within a specified [Link] observations appear actually leads to accurate and reliable results Calibration:Ensures that on spring material. When there is no load, all gauges have same resistance
Four bonded-wire strain gauges are mounted on a 450 helix with axis of
questionable or instrument indications do not match the output of an on-going basis that the equipment is performing properly. and bridge is [Link] load is applied, there is change in resistance
rotation and place in pairs diametrically opposite as shown in figure • If
surrogate instruments. REASON OF CALLIBRATION:In general use, calibration is often regarded and hence some output voltage is there which is the measure of applied
gauges are accurately placed and have matched characteristics, the
NEED OF CALIBORATION:To maintain quality control and quality as including the process of adjusting the output or indication on a load.
system is temperature compensated and insensitive to bending, thrust or
assurance in [Link] comply with requirements of global measurement instrument to agree with value of the applied standard,
[Link] change in resistance is purely due to torsion of shaft, hence the TORQUE MEASUREMENT
[Link] meet the requirement of ISO guides. within a specified [Link] observations appear
torque can be determined by measuring change in voltage which can be Four bonded-wire strain gauges are mounted on a 450 helix with axis of
Manual Calibration: a manual process may be used for calibration of a questionable or instrument indications do not match the output of
written as:T=e/(V*K)[J*E/r(1-μ)] rotation and place in pairs diametrically opposite as shown in figure • If
pressure gauge. The procedure requires multiple steps, to connect the surrogate instruments.
Where,e= Change in Voltage V=Applied Voltage K=Gauge Factor J=Polar gauges are accurately placed and have matched characteristics, the
gauge under test to a reference master gauge and an adjustable pressure NEED OF CALIBORATION:To maintain quality control and quality
Moment of Inertia E=Young’s Modulus r= Radius of Member system is temperature compensated and insensitive to bending, thrust or
source, to apply fluid pressure to both reference and test gauges at assurance in [Link] comply with requirements of global
Accelerometer: is an electromechanical device that measure [Link] change in resistance is purely due to torsion of shaft, hence the
definite points over the span of the gauge, and to compare the readings [Link] meet the requirement of ISO guides.
acceleration [Link] forces may be: torque can be determined by measuring change in voltage which can be
of the two. The gauge under test may be adjusted to ensure its zero point Manual Calibration: a manual process may be used for calibration of a
• Static, like the constant force of gravity pulling at your feet.• Dynamic - written as:T=e/(V*K)[J*E/r(1-μ)]
and response to pressure comply as closely as possible to the intended pressure gauge. The procedure requires multiple steps, to connect the
caused by moving or vibrating the [Link] Where,e= Change in Voltage V=Applied Voltage K=Gauge Factor J=Polar
accuracy. Each step of the process requires manual record keeping. gauge under test to a reference master gauge and an adjustable pressure
contains:Engineering Building and Structural Moment of Inertia E=Young’s Modulus r= Radius of Member
Automatic Calibration: An automatic pressure calibrator is a device that source, to apply fluid pressure to both reference and test gauges at
combines an electronic control unit.A pressure intensifier used to Monitoring,MedicalApplications,Navigation definite points over the span of the gauge, and to compare the readings Accelerometer: is an electromechanical device that measure
compress a gas such as Nitrogen, a pressure transducer used to detect WORKING PRICIPLE:•An accelerometer measures proper acceleration, of the two. The gauge under test may be adjusted to ensure its zero point acceleration [Link] forces may be:
desired levels in a hydraulic accumulator, and accessories such as liquid which is the acceleration it experiences relative to freefall and is the and response to pressure comply as closely as possible to the intended • Static, like the constant force of gravity pulling at your feet.• Dynamic -
traps and gauge fittings. An automatic system may also include data acceleration felt by people and objects. accuracy. Each step of the process requires manual record keeping. caused by moving or vibrating the [Link]
collection facilities to automate the gathering of data for record keeping. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SYSTEMATIC AND RANDOM Automatic Calibration: An automatic pressure calibrator is a device that contains:Engineering Building and Structural
CALLIBRATION SPECIFICATION:Instrument calibration tolerance limits ERROR combines an electronic control unit.A pressure intensifier used to Monitoring,MedicalApplications,Navigation
should be established so problems are identified and corrected in a • Random errors are (like the name suggests) completely random. They compress a gas such as Nitrogen, a pressure transducer used to detect WORKING PRICIPLE:•An accelerometer measures proper acceleration,
timely [Link] assigning tolerances, considerations given to: are unpredictable and can’t be replicated by repeating the experiment desired levels in a hydraulic accumulator, and accessories such as liquid which is the acceleration it experiences relative to freefall and is the
• Capability of the instrument being calibrated again. traps and gauge fittings. An automatic system may also include data acceleration felt by people and objects.
CALLIBRATION PROCESS: Written calibration procedures that use • Systematic Errors produce consistent errors, either a fixed amount (like collection facilities to automate the gathering of data for record keeping. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SYSTEMATIC AND RANDOM
traceable calibration standards or calibration equipment. Qualified 1 lb) or a proportion (like 105% of the true value). If you repeat the CALLIBRATION SPECIFICATION:Instrument calibration tolerance limits ERROR
individuals responsible for calibrating & maintaining instrumentation. experiment, you’ll get the same error. should be established so problems are identified and corrected in a • Random errors are (like the name suggests) completely random. They
Second person check of all calibration [Link] individuals • Systematic errors are consistently in the same direction (e.g. they are timely [Link] assigning tolerances, considerations given to: are unpredictable and can’t be replicated by repeating the experiment
responsible for monitoring the calibration always 50 g, 1% or 99 mm too large or too small). In contrast, random • Capability of the instrument being calibrated again.
Ensure the calibration program and procedures are reviewed and errors produce different values in random directions. For example, you CALLIBRATION PROCESS: Written calibration procedures that use • Systematic Errors produce consistent errors, either a fixed amount (like
approved by Quality use a scale to weigh yourself and get 148 lbs, 153 lbs, and 132 lbs. traceable calibration standards or calibration equipment. Qualified 1 lb) or a proportion (like 105% of the true value). If you repeat the
Random Errors Cause and ExamplesThe main reasons for random error individuals responsible for calibrating & maintaining instrumentation. experiment, you’ll get the same error.
UNPLANED CALLIBRATION:When the instrument is physically moved to a are limitations of instruments, environmental factors, and slight Second person check of all calibration [Link] individuals • Systematic errors are consistently in the same direction (e.g. they are
different location within a lab. Questionable or ambiguous results are variations in procedure. For example:When weighing yourself on a scale, responsible for monitoring the calibration always 50 g, 1% or 99 mm too large or too small). In contrast, random
obtainedperhaps as a part of investigation you position yourself slightly differently each time.• When taking a Ensure the calibration program and procedures are reviewed and errors produce different values in random directions. For example, you
SUCCESS OF CALIBRATION:depends on the following : • Consistency of volume reading in a flask, you may read the value from a different angle approved by Quality use a scale to weigh yourself and get 148 lbs, 153 lbs, and 132 lbs.
results [Link] and mitigation of outlier/potential each time. Systematic Errors Cause and Examples Random Errors Cause and ExamplesThe main reasons for random error
outliers•Scientifically designed calibration frequency. Typical causes of systematic error include observational error, imperfect UNPLANED CALLIBRATION:When the instrument is physically moved to a are limitations of instruments, environmental factors, and slight
BENEFITS:It fulfils the requirements of traceability to national / instrumentcalibration and environmental interference. For different location within a lab. Questionable or ambiguous results are variations in procedure. For example:When weighing yourself on a scale,
international standards like ISO 9000, ISO 14000 etc. example:Forgetting to tare or zero a balance produces mass obtainedperhaps as a part of investigation you position yourself slightly differently each time.• When taking a
As a proof that the instrument is working• Confidence in using the measurements that arealwavs "off" bu the same amount. An error SUCCESS OF CALIBRATION:depends on the following : • Consistency of volume reading in a flask, you may read the value from a different angle
instruments. Traceability to national measurement caused by not setting an instrumentto zero prior to its use is called an results [Link] and mitigation of outlier/potential each time. Systematic Errors Cause and Examples
[Link]. offset error. outliers•Scientifically designed calibration frequency. Typical causes of systematic error include observational error, imperfect
Reduced rejection, failure rate thus higher return. Random error can be reduced by: BENEFITS:It fulfils the requirements of traceability to national / instrumentcalibration and environmental interference. For
NO CALLIBRATION:Unscheduled [Link] product • Using an average measurement from a set of measurements or international standards like ISO 9000, ISO 14000 etc. example:Forgetting to tare or zero a balance produces mass
[Link] and audit [Link] rework and recalls increasing sample size. As a proof that the instrument is working• Confidence in using the measurements that arealwavs "off" bu the same amount. An error
OUT OF CALLIB:If calibration is not complete within time, results from the • It’s difficult to detect — and therefore prevent — systematic error. In instruments. Traceability to national measurement caused by not setting an instrumentto zero prior to its use is called an
calibration do no meet set criteria. If the results are different, then order to avoid these types of error, know the limitations of your [Link]. offset error.
appropriate evaluation and justification need to be [Link] on equipment and understand how the experiment works. This can help you Reduced rejection, failure rate thus higher return. Random error can be reduced by:
the outcome of the investigation, CAPA is implemented and the re- identify areas that may be prone to systematic errors. NO CALLIBRATION:Unscheduled [Link] product • Using an average measurement from a set of measurements or
calibration is performed. WAYS TO IMPROVE ACCURACY IN MEASURMENTS [Link] and audit [Link] rework and recalls increasing sample size.
Identification of Causes:Training of analyst for 1. Make the measurement with an instrument that has the highest level OUT OF CALLIB:If calibration is not complete within time, results from the • It’s difficult to detect — and therefore prevent — systematic error. In
[Link]/[Link] of of precision. The smaller the unit, or fraction of a unit, on the measuring calibration do no meet set criteria. If the results are different, then order to avoid these types of error, know the limitations of your
malfunction/breakdown and [Link] of previous calibration device, the more precisely the device can [Link] your tools! appropriate evaluation and justification need to be [Link] on equipment and understand how the experiment works. This can help you
report. Apply correct techniques when using the measuring instrument and the outcome of the investigation, CAPA is implemented and the re- identify areas that may be prone to systematic errors.
reading the value measured. Avoid the error called "parallax" -- always calibration is performed. WAYS TO IMPROVE ACCURACY IN MEASURMENTS
STATIC AND DYNAMIC take readings by looking straight down (or ahead) at the measuring Identification of Causes:Training of analyst for 1. Make the measurement with an instrument that has the highest level
Static Characteristics:Measurement of those quantities that are device. Looking at the measuring device from a left or right angle will give [Link]/[Link] of of precision. The smaller the unit, or fraction of a unit, on the measuring
constant or vary quite [Link] involvement of equations(like an incorrect [Link] the same measure several times to get a malfunction/breakdown and [Link] of previous calibration device, the more precisely the device can [Link] your tools!
differential Equations).E.g Dry friction, backlash. good average value,Measure under controlled conditions. report. Apply correct techniques when using the measuring instrument and
Dynamic Characteristics:Measurement problem involving rapidly reading the value measured. Avoid the error called "parallax" -- always
changing quantities•Dynamic relation between input and output•By the STATIC AND DYNAMIC take readings by looking straight down (or ahead) at the measuring
use of differential equations.E.g Non linear, complex Differential Static Characteristics:Measurement of those quantities that are device. Looking at the measuring device from a left or right angle will give
equations. constant or vary quite [Link] involvement of equations(like an incorrect [Link] the same measure several times to get a
STATIC CHARACTER differential Equations).E.g Dry friction, backlash. good average value,Measure under controlled conditions.
• 1Accuracy: It is the degree of closeness with which the reading Dynamic Characteristics:Measurement problem involving rapidly
approaches the true value of the quantity to be measured. The accuracy changing quantities•Dynamic relation between input and output•By the
can be expressed in following ways:Point accuracy: Such accuracy is use of differential equations.E.g Non linear, complex Differential
specified at only one particular point of scale. It does not give any equations.
information about the accuracy at any other Point on the scale. Accuracy STATIC CHARACTER
as percentage of scale span: When an instrument having a uniform scale, • 1Accuracy: It is the degree of closeness with which the reading
its accuracy may be expressed in terms of scale range. Accuracy as approaches the true value of the quantity to be measured. The accuracy
percentage of true value: The best way to conceive the idea of accuracy can be expressed in following ways:Point accuracy: Such accuracy is
is to specify it in terms of the true value of the quantity being measured. specified at only one particular point of scale. It does not give any
2 Precision: It is the measure of reproducibility i.e., given a fixed value of information about the accuracy at any other Point on the scale. Accuracy
a quantity, precision is a measure of the degree of agreement within a as percentage of scale span: When an instrument having a uniform scale,
group of measurements. The precision is composed of two its accuracy may be expressed in terms of scale range. Accuracy as
characteristics:a) Conformity: Consider a resistor having true value as percentage of true value: The best way to conceive the idea of accuracy
2385692 , which is being measured by an ohmmeter. But the reader can is to specify it in terms of the true value of the quantity being measured.
read consistently, a value as 2.4 M due to the non availability of proper 2 Precision: It is the measure of reproducibility i.e., given a fixed value of
scale. The error created due to the limitation of the scale reading is a a quantity, precision is a measure of the degree of agreement within a
precision error. b) Number of significant figures: The precision of the group of measurements. The precision is composed of two
measurement is obtained from the number of significant figures, in which characteristics:a) Conformity: Consider a resistor having true value as
the reading is expressed. The significant figures convey the actual 2385692 , which is being measured by an ohmmeter. But the reader can
information about the magnitude & the measurement precision of the read consistently, a value as 2.4 M due to the non availability of proper
quantity. 3 Sensitivity: The sensitivity denotes the smallest change in the scale. The error created due to the limitation of the scale reading is a
measured variable to which the instrument responds. It is defined as the precision error. b) Number of significant figures: The precision of the
ratio of the changes in the output of an instrument to a change in the measurement is obtained from the number of significant figures, in which
value of the quantity to be measured. Resolution: If the input is slowly the reading is expressed. The significant figures convey the actual
increased from some arbitrary input value, it will again be found that information about the magnitude & the measurement precision of the
output does not change at all until a certain increment is exceeded. This quantity. 3 Sensitivity: The sensitivity denotes the smallest change in the
increment is called resolution.4 Threshold: If the instrument input is measured variable to which the instrument responds. It is defined as the
increased very gradually from zero there will be some minimum value ratio of the changes in the output of an instrument to a change in the
below which no output change can be detected. This minimum value value of the quantity to be measured. Resolution: If the input is slowly
defines the threshold of the instrument. increased from some arbitrary input value, it will again be found that
5 Stability: It is the ability of an instrument to retain its performance output does not change at all until a certain increment is exceeded. This
throughout is specified operating life.6 Tolerance: The maximum increment is called resolution.4 Threshold: If the instrument input is
allowable error in the measurement is specified in terms of some value increased very gradually from zero there will be some minimum value
which is called tolerance.7 Range or span: The minimum & maximum below which no output change can be detected. This minimum value
values of a quantity for which an instrument is designed to measure is defines the threshold of the instrument.
called its range or span.8 Reproducibility: It is the degree of closeness 5 Stability: It is the ability of an instrument to retain its performance
with which a given value may be repeatedly measured. It is specified in throughout is specified operating life.6 Tolerance: The maximum
terms of scale readings over a given period of time.9 Repeatability: It is allowable error in the measurement is specified in terms of some value
defined as the variation of scale reading & random in nature.10Drift: Drift which is called tolerance.7 Range or span: The minimum & maximum
may be classified into three categories:a) zero drift: If the whole values of a quantity for which an instrument is designed to measure is
calibration gradually shifts due to slippage, permanent set, or due to called its range or span.8 Reproducibility: It is the degree of closeness
undue warming up of electronic tube circuits, zero drift sets in.b) span with which a given value may be repeatedly measured. It is specified in
drift or sensitivity drift: If there is proportional change in the indication terms of scale readings over a given period of time.9 Repeatability: It is
all along the upward scale, the drifts is called span drift or sensitivity defined as the variation of scale reading & random in nature.10Drift: Drift
drift.c) Zonal drift: In case the drift occurs only a portion of span of an may be classified into three categories:a) zero drift: If the whole